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(xii) Man cannot find himself except by worshipping and remembering his
Lord. If he forgets his Lord, he forgets himself, and does not know who
he is, what for he is, what he should do and where he should go: "Do
not be like those who forgot Allah, and therefore He caused them to forget
themselves." (Surah
Hashr, 59:19)
(xiii) When man leaves this world and the curtain of body which screens
his soul, is removed, many realities which are hidden now, are disclosed
to him: "We have removed the veil from your eyes, and so your
vision will now be sharp and strong." (Surah
Qaf, 50:22)
(xiv) Man does not exert himself for material gains only. To secure the
material necessities of life is not his sole motive. He often moves and
stirs up for the sake of higher objectives. It is possible that all his
efforts be confined to seeking the pleasure of his Creator: "0
well-contented soul! Return to your Lord well-pleased, well-pleasing."
(Surah
al-Fajr, 89:27 - 28)
"Allah has promised the believers, both men and women, gardens
underneath which rivers flow and in which they shall abide. (He has promised
them) nice dwellings in the Gardens of Eden. What is more, Allah shall
be pleased with them. That is the supreme triumph." (Surah
Tawbah, 9:72)
Hence, from the viewpoint of the Holy Qur'an man is a being chosen by Allah to be His vicegerent on the earth. He is semi-angelic and semi-material being. He is instinctively conscious of Allah. He is free, independent, holding a Divine trust, responsible for himself and the world. He controls nature, the earth and the heavens. He is inspired with good and evil. His existence begins with weakness and proceeds towards strength and perfection. Nothing can satisfy him except the remembrance of Allah. His intellectual and practical capacity is unlimited. He is endowed with inherent dignity and honour. Often his motives have no material aspect. He has been given the right to make a lawful use of the gifts of nature. But in all cases he is responsible to his Lord.
"Man is very hasty." (Surah
Bani Isra'il, 17:11)
"When misfortune befalls man, he prays to Us, reclining on
his side, standing or sitting. But as soon as We have relived him of his
suffering, he passes on as if he never invoked Us in connection with his
affliction."
(Surah
Yunus, 10: 12)
"Man has always been very grudging."
(Bani
Israil, 17:100)
"Man is more contentious than anything else."
(Surah
al-Kahf, 18:54)
"Man has been created impatient - fretful, when evil befalls
him, and when good befalls him grudging." (Surah
al-Ma'arij, 70:19 - 20)
Hence, he who requites goodness with goodness should be acclaimed and he who remains indifferent to the acts of favour done to him should be blamed and criticized. Acts performed at the instance of moral conscience are called acts of moral goodness.
Moral goodness is the criterion by which many of human acts are judged. In other words, man does many things only because of their moral value without taking into consideration their material side. This is also one of the characteristics of man and one of his spiritual dimensions. Other living beings have no similar standard by which their actions may be judged. Moral goodness and moral value have no meaning for an animal.
(iii) Beauty: Another mental dimension of man is his interest in beauty and appreciation of the beautiful. His aesthetic sense plays an important role in all spheres of his life. Man wears clothes to protect himself against the heat of summer and the cold of winter. But he gives equal importance to the beauty of colour and stitching of his clothes. He builds a house for living in it. But he pays more attention to the beauty of the house than to anything else. He observes the aesthetic principles in the selection of his dining table and dining crockery and even in the arrangement of his food on the table. Man likes his features to be beautiful, his clothes to be beautiful, his name to be beautiful, his hand-writing to be beautiful, his city and its roads to be beautiful and all spectacles before his eyes to be beautiful. In short he wants a hallow of beauty to encircle his entire life.
For an animal the question of beauty does not arise. What is important to it is its food and not the beauty of that. It is not interested in a beautiful saddle, a beautiful scenery, a beautiful abode etc.
(iv) Adoration and Worship: The sense of adoration and worship is one of the oldest and the most stable manifestations of the human soul and one of the most important dimensions of the existence of man. The study of anthropology shows that wherever and whenever man has existed, adoration and worship have also existed. Only the form of worship and the deity to be worshipped have differed. The form of worship also has varied from dances and rhythmical group movements accompanied by some liturgy and recitations to the highest form of humbling oneself and the most progressive recitations. The deity has varied from pieces of wood and stone to the eternally self-existing Being free from all temporal and spatial restrictions.
Worship was not invented by the Prophets. They only taught the proper
way of its performance. In addition they prevented and prohibited the
worship of any being other than Allah, the One.
According to the indisputable religious teachings and the view expressed by some scholars of the history of religion like Max Mueller, the primitive man was a monotheist, worshipping one single true Deity. The worship of the idols, the moon, the stars or the men is a sort of later deviation. In other words it did not happen that man began with the worship of idols, the men or any other creatures and gradually with cultural development reached the stage of worshipping Allah, the One. The sense of worship which is often called religious sense generally exists among most individuals.
We earlier quoted Erich Fromme as saying that: "Man may worship living
beings, trees, golden or stone-idols, the invisible God, a saint or a
demon; he may worship his ancestors, his nation, his class, his party,
or money and prosperity......... he may be conscious of his religious
beliefs as distinguished from his non-religious beliefs or, on the contrary,
he may think that he has no religion. It is not the question whether he
has or has not a religion; the question is what religion he has?". . .
. .
William James, as quoted by Dr Iqbal, says: "The impulse to pray is a necessary consequence of the fact that whilst the innermost of the empirical selves of a man is a self of the social sort, it yet can find its only adequate socious (its 'great companion') in an ideal world. . . . . . Most men, either continually or occasionally, carry a reference to it in their breasts. The humblest outcast on this earth can feel himself to be real and valid by means of this higher recognition". (The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, p. 89)
Professor William James in regard to the universality of the presence
of this sense among all individuals says: "It is probable that men differ
a great deal in the degree in which they are haunted by this sense of
an ideal spectator. It is much more essential part of the consciousness
of some men than of others. Those who have the most of it are possibly
the most religious men. But I am sure that even those who say that they
are altogether without it, deceive themselves and really have it in some
degree". (The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam)
The creation of the fictitious heroes out of the athletes, intellectuals or religious men is due to the human sense of sanctification which wants to have a laudable and adorable being and to extol him so lovingly as to make him supernatural.
Modern man's exaggerated praise of the national or party heroes and his adoration of his party, doctrine, ideology, flag, homeland and his readiness to make sacrifice for these is due to this very sense. The sense of adoration is an instinctive desire to worship the supermost perfectness and beauty free from every defect, deficiency or blemish. The worship of any created thing in any form is a sort of deviation of this sense from its normal course.
By means of worship man wants to soar from his limited existence and join a truth not subject to any defect, deficiency, annihilation or limitation. The great scientist of our times, Einstein says: "In this state the individual realizes the paltriness of his aims and ambitions and feels the greatness and awe produced on his mind by what is supernatural and metaphysical ... Prayer as a means of spiritual illumination is a normal and vital act by which the little island of our personality suddenly discovers its situation in a larger whole of life". (The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam)
Worship and adoration indicate a possibility, a desire of going out of the sphere of material things and an inclination to join a higher and wider horizon. Such a desire is peculiar to man. As such worship is another mental and spiritual dimension of man.
The variation from individual to individual in being affected by various urges and impulses and the choice he may exercise between them, are the questions which we propose to discuss next.
Diverse Powers of Man
Power or force need not be defined. The factor from which some effect
is produced is called power or force. Every thing existing in the world
is the source of one or more effects. Therefore everything whether it
is inorganic matter or a plant or an animal or man, has some power or
force, which if accompanied by consciousness, perception and desire is
called ability.
One of the differences between the animals and man on the one hand, and the plants and the inorganic matter on the other is that unlike the inorganic matter and the plants, the animals and man can use a part of their power as motivated by their own desire, intention, inclination or some fear. A magnet has the property of attracting iron automatically as a result of some sort of natural compulsion. But the magnet is neither aware of its working nor does by its own inclination, desire or any fear demands that it should attract iron. The same is true of fire which burns, of a plant which grows of a tree which blossoms and bears fruit. But the animal when it walks knows what it is doing. It walks because it wants to do so. It is under no compulsion to walk. That is why it is said that the animal walks of its own choice. In other words, some powers of an animal are subordinate to its choice, and work only when it wants.
The same is the case with a part of man's powers also. Some of his powers are subordinate to his choice. But there is one difference. The choice of an animal is controlled by its natural and instinctive inclinations. An animal has no power to resist the dictates of its instincts. As soon as it is internally attracted to a certain direction, it is automatically drawn to it. It can neither withstand its inner inclination, nor can it consider its pros and cons. It cannot think of any action to which it is not inclined presently but which is demanded by far-sightedness.
But that is not the case with man. He has the power to withstand his inner inclinations and impulsion and not to act according to them. Man has this power of discrimination because he possesses another power which is called will and which in turn works under the direction of reason or man's intellectual faculty. It is reason which forms an opinion and it is will that puts it into practice.
It is clear from what has been mentioned above that in regard to his
various powers man is distinct from animals in two respects. Firstly,
he possesses a number of inclinations and spiritual drives which enable
him to extend the sphere of his activities to the higher horizon of spiritualities
while other animals cannot step outside the limits of material affairs.
Secondly, he is equipped with the powers of reason and will; and as such can withstand his natural inclinations and can free himself from their compelling influence. He can rule over all his propensities and bring them under the control of his reason. He can fix a limit to each of his inclination, which is the most valuable kind of freedom.
This great power is peculiar to man and is not shared by any other animal. It is this power which has made man fit to be obligated to observe the precepts of religion, has given him the right of choice and has made him a really free, volitive and choosing being.
Inclinations and drives are a sort of bond between man and an external centre, which pulls him towards itself. The more he submits to his inclinations, the more he loses his self-control and enters a state of internal lethargy and misery. His destiny falls into the hand of an external force which may pull him to any direction. On the contrary the force of reason and will is an inner force and a manifestation of the real personality of man.
When a man procures the support of his reason and will, he gets together his own forces, breaks off with external influences, makes himself free and becomes an 'independent island' in the ocean of this world. By means of his reason and will man becomes master of himself, and his personality gains strength.
To gain control and mastery of one-self and to get rid of the influence of impulses and drives are the true objects of Islamic training which aims at spiritual freedom.
Self-Consciousness
Islam very keenly wants that man should know himself and should find out his position in the universe. The Holy Qur'an has laid all that stress on man so that he should know himself as he is, and should realize his position and status in the world with a view to occupy there a high position befitting him.
The Holy Qur'an is a book which teaches man how to build himself. It is not a book of theoretical philosophy concerned only with discussions and views. Whatever view it puts forward is meant for implementation and taking action.
The Holy Qur'an wants that man should discover himself. But this discovery of self does not mean that he should find out what his name is; what his father's name is; in which year he was born; which country he belongs to; with whom he has married or how many children he has.
This self is the same thing which has been given the name of 'Divine spirit'. To know this self means that man should be conscious of his dignity and nobility and should apprehend that his indulgence in any kind of meanness is far below his high position. He should realize his own sacredness so that the sacred, moral and social values may have a meaning for him.
When the Holy Qur'an says that man is a chosen being, it wants to make it clear that he is not an accidental being brought into existence by certain blind and deaf incidents like the accidental combination of atoms. The Holy Qur'an says that he is a chosen being, and for that reason has a mission and a responsibility. There is no doubt that in this terrestrial world man is the strongest and the most powerful being. If we compare the earth and all that exists on it to a manor, we can say that man is the lord of this manor. But let us see whether man has been chosen to be the lord or he has imposed himself on the world by means of some force or fraud.
Various schools of material philosophy assert that it is a mere accident that man has come to power. It is obvious that with this presumption the question of any mission and responsibility becomes meaningless.
From the viewpoint of the Holy Qur'an man has been selected to be the lord of the earth by virtue of his competence and fitness. He has not come to power by force or as the result of any struggle. He has been chosen by the highest competent authority, which is none other than Allah, the Almighty, and as such, like any other selected being he holds a mission and bears a responsibility. His mission being from Allah, his responsibility is also towards Him.
The belief that man is a chosen being and has been brought into existence with a purpose, produces one kind of psychological effects in the individuals, and the belief that he is the outcome of a number of aimless accidents produces another kind of psychological effects.
Self-consciousness means that man should realize his real position in
the world. He should know that he is not merely a terrestrial being. He
has a reflection of Divine spirit in him. Man should know that he is ahead
of the angels in cognition. He is free, has the power of choosing and
willing, and is responsible for himself and others. His responsibility
includes to improve the world and make it thrive. The Holy Qur'an says:
"He has brought you forth from the earth and has made you husband
it." (Surah
Hud, 11:61)
Man should know that he is a trustee appointed by Allah and that he has not gained superiority by chance. Hence it does not befit him to despotically acquire every thing for himself and think that he has no responsibility or duty.
From the foregoing discussion we have come to know that out of knowledge
and faith each of them has a separate role in making the future of man.
The role of knowledge is to show the way of making his future. Knowledge
enables him to make his future as he likes. Faith tells him how to make
it in such a way that it may be beneficial to himself and society. Faith
prevents man from making his future on a material and individualistic
basis. It gives direction to his desires and makes them embrace spiritualities
instead of being confined to what is materialistic.
Knowledge serves as a tool for the achievement of man's desires. It help him turn nature as he wants. But knowledge is not concerned how nature is moulded and whether one uses it for the benefit of society or for advancing the interests of some particular individuals only that depends on what kind of men are those at whose disposal knowledge is. But faith works as a checking power. It controls man's impulses and directs them to the course of truth and morality. Faith makes man, and man builds the world with the power of his knowledge. Where faith and knowledge are combined, both man and the world are brought to the desired state.
Man's Will and Range of His Freedom
Though man has enough freedom to be able to develop his psychological organs, to bring his natural environment to the desired state and to make his future, obviously he has many limitations and his freedom is only relative. In other words the range of his freedom is limited and only within that range he can choose his good or bad future.
There are several aspects of man's limitations:
(i) Heredity: Man comes to this world with human nature. His parents being human being, he also has to be willy-nilly a human being. From his parents he inherits a number of hereditary traits like the colour of his skin and eyes and some other features of his body which often continue to be transmitted for several generations. Man cannot choose them for himself. They are forcibly transmitted to him by inheritance.
(ii) Natural and Geographical Environment: Man's natural and geographical environment and the region in which he is brought up, invariably produce a number of effects on his body and spirit. Each of the hot, cold and temperate regions has certain inevitable effects on the spirit and morals of the inhabitants of that region. The same is true of the mountainous and the desert areas also.
(iii) Social Atmosphere: Social atmosphere of man is an important
factor in the formation of his spiritual and moral characteristics. Language,
social etiquette, customs and religion are the things which are mostly
imposed on man by social atmosphere.
(iv) History and Time Factors: From the viewpoint of social environment man is influenced not only by the present time, but the past events also play a considerable role in moulding his character. On the whole, there is a definite link between the present and the past of every existing being. The past and the future of a being are not like two points totally separate from each other, but are like two pieces of a continuous process. The past is the seed and the nucleus of the future.
Man's Revolt Against Limitations
Though man cannot totally sever his relation with his heredity, natural environment, social atmosphere and the factors of history and time, yet he can revolt against the limitations imposed by them and to a great extent can free himself from the way of these factors. Man by dint of his knowledge and intellect on the one hand, and his will and faith on the other, can bring about changes in these factors as he wishes, and can become the master of his destiny.
Man and Divine Fate
Generally it is believed that Divine fate is the main factor that imposes limitation on man, but we did not mention it while recounting the factors that limit man's freedom. Why?
Does Divine fate not exist, or is it not a limiting factor? There is no doubt about the existence of Divine fate, but it imposes no restriction on man. Divine fate has two parts known as 'qaza' and 'qadar'. Divine qaza means a Divine decree in respect of the
occurrences and events, and Divine qadar means estimation of the
phenomena and the events. From the viewpoint of divinity it is indisputable
that Divine fate does not apply to any event direct. It necessitates its
occurrence only through its causes. Divine qaza requires that the world
order should be based on the system of causation. Whatsoever freedom man
may have on account of his intellect and will and whatsoever limitations
he may have because of the hereditary, environmental and historical factors,
he has been made by decree of Allah subject to a definite system of causes
and effects in the world.
Therefore Divine qaza is not considered to be a factor imposing any restriction on man. Whatever restrictions it imposes are the result of man's heredity, environmental and historical conditions and nothing else. Similarly whatever freedom he has, that also has been decreed by Allah. He has decreed that man should have intellect and will, and within a limited sphere of his natural and social conditions, should to a large extent, be independent of these conditions, and thus be able to take his destiny and future in his own hands.
Man and Obligations
One of the principal characteristics of man is that he has the capability of being obligated to observe religious precepts. He alone can live within the framework of the laws enunciated for him. No other being can follow a law other than the natural compulsory laws. For example, it is not possible to lay down law for the stones and timber or for the trees and flowers or for the horses, the cows and the sheep. They cannot be obligated to abide by any laws framed for them and in their interest. If any action is required to safeguard their interests, that action has to be imposed on them.
Man is the only being which has the distinction of being able to conduct himself within the framework of a series of contractual laws. As these laws are framed by a competent authority and then imposed on man, they naturally involves a sort of hardship for him. That is why they have been given the name of 'obligation'.
In order to bind man to carry out a certain obligation, the law-giver has to observe certain conditions. In other words only a man fulfilling certain conditions shoulders the responsibility of carrying out the obligations. The conditions which must be fulfilled in case of every obligation, are as under:
(i) Puberty: When man reaches a certain stage of his life there
appear some sudden changes in his body, his feelings and his thoughts.
The appearance of these changes is called puberty. It is a natural stage
attained by everyone.
It is not possible to determine an exact time when one attains puberty. Some individuals reach this stage earlier than others. That largely depends on the personal characteristics of the individuals as well as their regional and environmental conditions.
What is certain is that women reach the stage of natural puberty earlier than men. From legal point of view it is necessary to fix a definite age of majority in order to achieve uniformity. It may be either the average age of puberty or the minimum age of it (in addition to another condition of maturity which is understanding as described in Islamic jurisprudence).
On this basis an individual may reach the age of natural puberty, but may not be considered to have attained legal majority. In accordance with the view held by the majority of the Shi'ah Ulema the legal majority of man from the point of view of age has been fixed at his completing 15 years and entering the 16th year and that of a woman at her completing nine years and entering the 10th year. Legal majority is one of the conditions of the legal capacity for the implementation of obligations. In other words, a person who has not reached this stage, the law is not addressed to him, unless it is proved that he has attained natural puberty before reaching the age of legal majority.
(ii) Sanity: Another condition of the liability for the discharge
of obligations is sanity. A lunatic lacking the power of understanding
has no obligations, his case being similar to that of a minor during the
period of his minority. Even on attaining majority a person is not obligated
to perform acts which he missed when he was a minor. For example an adult
is not obligated to complete the prayers which he did not offer during
his infancy, for at that time the law was not addressed to him. A lunatic
during his lunacy is also not obligated. Hence if he later regains his
senses, he will not be obligated to perform the prayers and the fasts
which he missed during the period of his lunacy. He will be obligated
only to carry them out subsequent to his recovery. Same is the case of
the religious taxes like, Zakat and Khums, which may become due on the
property of a minor or a lunatic. A minor or a lunatic is liable to pay
them only after reaching the stage of being obligated, if not already
paid by his legal guardian.
(iii) Knowledge and Awareness: Obviously a man can discharge an obligation only if he is aware of its existence. In other words, a man must have been informed of his obligation before he is expected to discharge it.
Suppose the law-giver lays down a law but he does not convey it to the person who has to act according to it. In this case that person will not be obliged, or rather will not be able to put that law into effect. If he violates that law, the law-giver cannot justifiably punish him. To punish a person who is not aware of his obligation and his ignorance of law is not due to any fault of his, is bad and such a punishment is unsound. This case is known as 'abominableness of punishment without exposition of law'.
The Holy Qur'an has repeatedly mentioned this truth and has stated that no people are to be punished for the violation of law unless they have been duly warned and the provisions of law have been conveyed to them.
Of course the condition of the awareness of law as a prerequisite of its application does not imply that anybody can keep himself intentionally ignorant of the law and then can put forward his ignorance as an excuse. It is the bounden duty of every man fit for the application of law to acquire knowledge of it and act accordingly. A hadith says that on the Day of Judgement some sinners will be produced in the Divine Court of Justice and will be questioned about their failure to discharge some of their responsibilities. They will be asked why they did not do their duty. They will say: "We did not know". It will be said to them: "Why did you not know and why did you not try to become aware of the law?"
Hence when we say that awareness is a condition of the applicability
of a law, we mean that if an obligation has not been conveyed to the person
to whom it is applicable and he could not become aware of it in spite
of his making due effort to acquire necessary knowledge, such a person
is excusable in the sight of Allah.
(iv) Ability and Power: A man can be obligated to do only what
he can perform. An act which he cannot perform, can never become his obligation.
There is no doubt that man's ability is limited. Hence obligations should
be imposed on him only within that limit. For example, man has the capacity
of acquiring knowledge, but the scope of his acquiring it, is limited
from the viewpoint of time and the amount of information. Howsoever an
individual may be a genius, he must cross the different stages of knowledge
gradually and over a length of time. To force a man to complete within
a short period an academic course, which normally takes several years,
means to force him to do a task which is beyond his power and capacity.
Similarly to force a man to undertake the study of all the sciences of
the world means asking him to do something totally impossible. Such an
obligation will never be imposed by a just and judicious source. In the
Holy Qur'an Allah says: "Allah does not take a soul beyond
its scope." (Surah
al-Baqarah, 2:286)
In other words Allah does not impose an obligation on anyone beyond his capacity. If somebody is drowning and we can rescue him, it is incumbent on us to do so. But if, for example, an aircraft is crashing and we are absolutely unable to do anything to save it, we have no obligation in this respect. Allah will not punish us for not preventing the crash.
Here there is a point to be noted. The fact that obligation is conditional
on awareness, does not mean that it is not our duty to gain knowledge,
similarly the fact that obligation is conditional on ability does not
imply that we are not required to gain the necessary power and ability.
In certain cases it is indeed incumbent upon us to gain such power. Suppose
we are confronted with a mighty and powerful enemy who wants to encroach
on our rights or intends to commit an aggression against the territory
of Islam. In this case if we know that we are unable to fight him and
to a make any such attempt simply means the loss of our forces without
there being any present or future prospect of achieving a result, obviously
we are not obliged to take action and resist the aggressor. But it has
always been and still is our duty to acquire enough power so that in similar
circumstances we may not be helpless spectators. The Holy Qur'an says:
"Make ready for them all you can of force and of horses tethered
so that thereby you may dismay the enemy of Allah and your enemy."
(Surah
al-Anfal, 8:60)
Just as an individual or a society that neglects to acquire enough knowledge is liable to be Divinely blamed and his or its ignorance is not to be accepted as an excuse, similarly a weak individual or a weak society that has neglected to gain enough power is to be Divinely blamed and punished. Weakness cannot be an excuse.
(v) Power of Choice and free-Will: Another pre-requisite condition
of an obligation is free-will. In other words, man is obligated to perform
a duty only when no coercion or compulsion by force of circumstances is
involved in the act. No act can be obligatory if coercion or compulsion
by force of circumstances is involved in it. The following examples illustrate
the cases of coercion: If a person is forced by someone not to keep a
fast and is threatened that his life will be in danger if he ignores the
threat, obviously fasting will not be obligatory for him. The same will
be the position of a man who has the means to go on pilgrimage, but is
threatened by a tyrant with dire consequences to himself or his dependents
if he goes. The Holy Prophet has declared: "There is no obligation
if there is any coercion.".
In the case of force of circumstances the individual concerned is not
threatened by any other being. He himself takes the decision. But his
choice is the result of harsh circumstances which he faces. For example,
a man is left helpless and hungry in a desert. Except carrion he has no
food to allay his hunger and keep himself alive. In these circumstances
the rule about the prohibition of carrion is naturally waved. The difference
between coercion and compulsion by the force of circumstances is that
in the case of coercion some person is threatened with dire consequences
by a tyrant force, and in order to save himself and avert an expected
danger he is compelled to act contrary to his normal duty.
But there is no such threat in the case of compulsion by force of circumstances. In this case the circumstances on the whole develop in such a way that they impose an undesirable situation on the man concerned. He in order to get out of the situation that already exists, is compelled to act contrary to his normal duty. Hence there is a two-fold difference between coercion and compulsion by force of circumstances:
(i) In coercion there is a threat by some human being but there is no such threat in compulsion by force of circumstances. (ii) In the case of coercion the man concerned takes an action to keep off an undesirable situation, but in the case of compulsion by force of circumstances he takes an action to alleviate an existing situation.
Anyway, there is no general rule with regard to the effect of coercion and compulsion by force of circumstances on an obligation. Their effect depends on two things: first, on the extent of harm or injury, that is to be warded off or alleviated; and secondly on the gravity of the act to be performed as a result of coercion or compulsion by force of circumstances. Obviously no action endangering the life of others, causing damage to society or harming religion can ever be allowed to be taken under any pretext. Of course there are certain obligations, which must be discharged even at any loss or damage.
