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Water
I INTRODUCTION
Water, common name applied to the liquid state of the hydrogen-oxygen compound H2O. The ancient philosophers regarded water as a basic element typifying all liquid substances. Scientists did not discard that view until the latter half of the 18th century. In 1781 the British chemist Henry Cavendish synthesized water by detonating a mixture of hydrogen and air. However, the results of his experiments were not clearly interpreted until two years later, when the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier proved that water was not an element but a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In a scientific paper presented in 1804, the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and the German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt demonstrated jointly that water consisted of two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen, as expressed by the present-day formula H2O.
Almost all the hydrogen in water has an atomic weight of 1. The American chemist Harold Clayton Urey discovered in 1932 the presence in water of a small amount (1 part in 6000) of so-called heavy water, or deuterium oxide (D2O); deuterium is the hydrogen isotope with an atomic weight of 2. In 1951 the American chemist Aristid Grosse discovered that naturally occurring water contains also minute traces of tritium oxide (T2O); tritium is the hydrogen isotope with an atomic weight of 3. See Atom.
II PROPERTIES
Pure water is an odorless, tasteless liquid. It has a bluish tint, which may be detected, however, only in layers of considerable depth. Under standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm of mercury, or 760 torr); the freezing point of water is 0 C (32 F) and its boiling point is 100 C (212 F). Water attains its maximum density at a temperature of 4 C (39 F) and expands upon freezing. Like most other liquids, water can exist in a supercooled state; that is, it may remain a liquid although its temperature is below its freezing point. Water can easily be cooled to about -25 C (-13 F) without freezing, either under laboratory conditions or in the atmosphere itself. Supercooled water will freeze if it is disturbed, if the temperature is lowered further, or if an ice crystal or other particle is added to it. Its physical properties are used as standards to define the calorie and specific and latent heat (see Heat) and in the metric system for the original definition of the unit of mass, the gram.
Water is one of the best-known ionizing agents (see Ionization). Because most substances are somewhat soluble in water, it is frequently called the universal solvent. Water combines with certain salts to form hydrates. It reacts with metal oxides to form acids (see Acids and Bases). It acts as a catalyst in many important chemical reactions.
III OCCURRENCE
Water is the only substance that occurs at ordinary temperatures in all three states of matter, that is, as a solid, a liquid, and a gas. As a solid, or ice, it is found as glaciers and ice caps, on water surfaces in winter, as snow, hail, and frost, and as clouds formed of ice crystals. It occurs in the liquid state as rain clouds formed of water droplets, and on vegetation as dew; in addition, it covers three-quarters of the surface of the earth in the form of swamps, lakes, rivers, and oceans. As gas, or water vapor, it occurs as fog, steam, and clouds. Atmospheric vapor is measured in terms of relative humidity, which is the ratio of the quantity of vapor actually present to the greatest amount possible at a given temperature. See Atmosphere; Cloud; Fog; Humidity; Rain.
Water occurs as moisture in the upper portion of the soil profile, in which it is held by capillary action to the particles of soil. In this state, it is called bound water and has different characteristics from free water See Soil; Soil Management. Under the influence of gravity, water accumulates in rock interstices beneath the surface of the earth as a vast groundwater reservoir supplying wells and springs and sustaining the flow of some streams during periods of drought.
IV WATER IN LIFE
Water is the major constitutent of living matter. From 50 to 90 percent of the weight of living organisms is water. Protoplasm, the basic material of living cells, consists of a solution in water of fats, carbohydrates, proteins, salts, and similar chemicals. Water acts as a solvent, transporting, combining, and chemically breaking down these substances. Blood in animals and sap in plants consist largely of water and serve to transport food and remove waste material. Water also plays a key role in the metabolic breakdown of such essential molecules as proteins and carbohydrates. This process, called hydrolysis, goes on continually in living cells.
V NATURAL WATER CYCLE
Hydrology is the science concerned with the distribution of water on the earth, its physical and chemical reactions with other naturally occurring substances, and its relation to life on earth; the continuous movement of water between the earth and the atmosphere is known as the hydrological cycle. Under several influences, of which heat is predominant, water is evaporated from both water and land surfaces and is transpired from living cells. This vapor circulates through the atmosphere and is precipitated in the form of rain or snow. See Meteorology.
On striking the surface of the earth, the water follows two paths. In amounts determined by the intensity of the rain and the porosity, permeability, thickness, and previous moisture content of the soil, one part of the water, termed surface runoff, flows directly into rills and streams and thence into oceans or landlocked bodies of water; the remainder infiltrates into the soil. A part of the infiltrated water becomes soil moisture, which may be evaporated directly or may move upward through the roots of vegetation to be transpired from leaves. The portion of the water that overcomes the forces of cohesion and adhesion in the soil profile percolates downward, accumulating in the so-called zone of saturation to form the groundwater reservoir, the surface of which is known as the water table. Under natural conditions, the water table rises intermittently in response to replenishment, or recharge, and then declines as a result of continuous drainage into natural outlets such as springs. See Spring.
VI COMPOSITION
Because of its capacity to dissolve numerous substances in large amounts, pure water rarely occurs in nature.
During condensation and precipitation, rain or snow absorbs from the atmosphere varying amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases, as well as traces of organic and inorganic material. In addition, precipitation carries radioactive fallout to the earth's surface.
In its movement on and through the earth's crust, water reacts with minerals in the soil and rocks. The principal dissolved constituents of surface and groundwater are sulfates, chlorides, and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium and the oxides of calcium and magnesium. Surface waters may also contain domestic sewage and industrial wastes. Groundwaters from shallow wells may contain large quantities of nitrogen compounds and chlorides derived from human and animal wastes. Waters from deep wells generally contain only minerals in solution. Almost all supplies of natural drinking water contain flourides in varying amounts. The proper proportion of flourides in drinking water has been found to reduce tooth decay. See Fluorine.
Seawater contains, in addition to concentrated amounts of sodium chloride, or salt, many other soluble compounds, as the impure waters of rivers and streams are constantly feeding the oceans. At the same time, pure water is continually lost by the process of evaporation, and as a result the proportion of the impurities that give the oceans their saline character is increased. See Ocean and Oceanography.
VII WATER PURIFICATION
Suspended and dissolved impurities present in naturally occurring water make it unsuitable for many purposes. Objectionable organic and inorganic materials are removed by such methods as screening and sedimentation to eliminate suspended materials; treatment with such compounds as activated carbon to remove tastes and odors; filtration; and chlorination or irradiation to kill infective microorganisms. See also Sewage Disposal.
In aeration, or the saturation of water with air, water is brought into contact with air in such a manner as to produce maximum diffusion, usually by spraying water into the air in fountains. Aeration removes odors and taste caused by decomposing organic matter, and also industrial wastes such as phenols and volatile gases such as chlorine. It also converts dissolved iron and manganese compounds into insoluble hydrated oxides of the metals which may then be readily settled out.
Hardness of natural waters is caused largely by calcium and magnesium salts and to a small extent by iron, aluminum, and other metals. Hardness resulting from the bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium is called temporary hardness and can be removed by boiling, which also sterilizes the water. The residual hardness is known as noncarbonate, or permanent, hardness. The methods of softening noncarbonate hardness include the addition of sodium carbonate and lime and filtration through natural or artificial zeolites which absorb the hardness-producing metallic ions and release sodium ions to the water See Ion Exchange; Zeolite. Sequestering agents in detergents serve to inactivate the substances that make water hard.
Iron, which causes an unpleasant taste in drinking water, may be removed by aeration and sedimentation or by passing the water through iron-removing zeolite filters, or the iron may be stabilized by addition of such salts as polyphosphates. For use in laboratory applications, water is either distilled or demineralized by passing it through ion-absorbing compounds.
VIII WATER DESALINIZATION
To meet the ever-increasing demands for fresh water, especially in arid and semiarid areas, much research has gone into finding efficient methods of removing salt from seawater and brackish waters. In the U.S., desalinization research is directed by the Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior. Several processes are being developed to produce fresh water cheaply.
Three of the processes involve evaporation followed by condensation of the resultant steam and are known as multiple-effect evaporation, vapor-compression distillation, and flash evaporation. The last-named method, the most widely used, involves heating seawater and pumping it into lower-pressure tanks, where the water abruptly vaporizes (flashes) into steam. The steam then condenses and is drawn off as pure water. In 1967, Key West, Florida, opened a flash-evaporation plant and thus became the first city in the U.S. to draw its fresh water from the sea.
Freezing is an alternate method, based on the different freezing points of fresh and salt water. The ice crystals are separated from the brine, washed free of salt, and melted into fresh water. In another process, called reverse osmosis, pressure is used to force fresh water through a thin membrane that does not allow the minerals to pass. Reverse osmosis is still undergoing intensive development. Electrodialysis is being used to desalt brackish waters. When salt dissolves in water, it splits into positive and negative ions, which are then removed by electric current through anion and cation membranes, thus depleting the salt in the product water. Although developmental work on electrodialysis is continuing, a number of commercial plants are in operation. In 1962 Buckeye, Arizona, became the first town to have all its water supplied by its own electrodialysis-desalting plant, which provides about 2,460,000 liters (about 650,000 gallons) of water daily at a cost of about $1 per 6300 liters (1670 gallons).
One major problem in desalinization projects is the cost of producing fresh water. Using conventional fuels, plants with a capacity of 3.8 million liters (1 million gallons) per day or less produce water at a cost of $1 or more per 3800 liters (1000 gallons). More than 500 such plants are in operation, with a total capacity of nearly 473 million liters (nearly 125 million gallons) a day; however, their high costs limit their use to areas of great water scarcity. Water from conventional sources, such as wells and reservoirs, is sold for less than 30 cents per 3800 liters delivered to the home, and water for irrigation is usually priced at less than 5 cents per 3800 liters. The dual-purpose atomic power and water-desalting plants now being planned are designed to produce fresh water for between 20 and 30 cents per 3800 liters.
Most experts expect more immediate results from efforts to purify mildly brackish water that contains between 1000 and 4500 parts per million of minerals, compared to 35,000 parts per million for ocean water. Because water is potable if it contains fewer than 500 parts per million of salt, the cost of desalting brackish water is correspondingly less than it is for desalting seawater. See Solar Energy; See also Waterpower; Water Supply and Waterworks.
For other functions of water, see Erosion; Geology; Metabolism.
Water Molecule
A water molecule consists of an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, which are attached at an angle of 105. Not shown are two pairs of electrons on the bottom that form a similar angle in a plane perpendicular to this view. This asymmetrical arrangement accounts for the many unusual properties of water, such as the fact that it expands when it freezes.
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