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Islamic Gnosis ('Irfan) and Wisdom
(Hikmat)
by
Ayatullah Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi
Preface
In the Name of Allah, the Merciful, the
Compassionate
In the cosmic realm, human beings are like balls
released into space which have within them a hidden potential energy
for flight into an infinitely sublime world. But the gravitational
attraction of worldly pleasures draws them toward the depths of the
material world, as a result of which they fall and become degenerate;
and the selfish tendencies and Satanic temptations which have become
embodied in materialistic civilizations and cultures increase the
speed of their downfall.
Amidst all this, there are a few individuals and
groups of people the eyes of whose hearts are open to spiritual truths
and the ears of whose souls have become familiar with divine messages
who have the resolution to turn aside from the pollution of their
animalistic desires, who open their wings to the illuminated horizon
of the angelic domain and in the course of their evolution they begin
an ascent to the origin of all beauties, splendours, powers, and
raptures and the infinite source of perfections, and in a word, ascend
toward God. Like balls which have bounced down to the ground, they are
disillusioned with the dead-end of materialism and once again, with
the same speed with which they descended, they move in the opposite
direction and rise toward the sublime world. It is quite likely that
this process will recur repeatedly.
This reaction may be well observed, nowadays, among
groups of people who have become disillusioned with corrupt Western
culture and who feel within themselves a great thirst and longing for
spiritual values, and wander to and fro in order to find the
fountainhead of this lucid water. But, alas, most of them fall into
the traps laid by sorcerers who in place of the nectar of gnosis pour
the poison of perdition down their throats. They lead them from
pitfall to abyss, and through a rear door to the realm of ruin and
destruction.
The centrifugal motion of materialistic culture and
the turn back toward spiritual culture is not merely restricted to
individual tendencies. We are now witnessing movements toward Islam in
all corners of the world, even in the most polluted and corrupt of
afflicted lands. These movements have been accelerated by a great
Islamic revolution led by a prominent gnostic, who, taking advantage
of the flourishing talents of the people, was able to gain victory
over the Satanic forces in the rays of the lights of Islamic
teachings. Despite the great obstacles put in its way on all sides, it
still gallops forward. But, although this is not the first time that a
divine man and gnostic of the Lord has undertaken the leadership of a
popular movement, it is not easy to find another example with such
scope and depth and with such firmness and stability.
In any case, this phenomenon, in turn, also can be
a very strong motive for the investigation of the role of spiritual
tendencies, especially the role of Islamic gnosis, in the positive and
desirable changes in the lives of human beings.
Section 1
Gnosis (Irfan) in the Islamic World
From antiquity, in the Islamic world there have
been tendencies by the names of gnosis ( iron) and sufism (tasawwuf),
and from the 4th/10th to 8th/14th centuries they reached their summit
in many countries such as Iran and Turkey. Today, there are various
sufi sects all over the world. Similar tendencies also may be found
among the followers of the other religions.
Considering this common aspect, it is natural for
the question to be raised as to whether there really is any such thing
as Islamic gnosis to be found in Islam, or whether Muslims have taken
this from others, so that what is called Islamic gnosis is really the
gnosis of Muslims, not a truly Islamic gnosis. If there is such a
thing as gnosis in Islam, is this the very thing which currently
exists among Muslims, or has it been subjected to changes?
In answering these questions, some have absolutely
denied the existence of gnosis in Islam and have regarded it as
heretical innovation to be repudiated. Others consider it to have come
from outside the context of Islam, while holding it to be compatible
with it. In this line, some have said that sufism is an acceptable
innovation in Islam, like monasticism in Christianity. In this regard,
the Glorious Qur'an states:
And as for monasticism, they invented it
themselves; We did not prescribe it for them, except for seeking the
pleasure of Allah. (57:27)
Finally, there is a group who consider gnosis to be
not only a part of Islam, but the kernel and spirit of it which comes
from the Qur'an and prophetic sunnah, just as the other parts of
Islam. It is not that it was adapted from other schools of thought and
trends, and the aspects common to gnosis in Islam and other religions
is no reason to hold that Islamic gnosis was derived from them, just
as the similarities between the religious law (shariah) of Islam and
the heavenly religious laws of the previous religions does not mean
that the former was derived from the latter.
We approve of the last response to the question,
and we add that the assertion of the originality of Islamic gnosis is
not to condone whatever has been called gnosis or sufism in Islam.
Likewise, it is not just any sort of creed or conduct found among
groups related to Islam that can be considered truly Islamic beliefs
and practices; otherwise, Islam would necessarily be a contradictory
set of beliefs with a conflicting set of values, or there would be
conflicting and contradictory Islams! In any case, with our admission
of the originality of Islamic gnosis, a gnosis whose highest degree
was reached by the Noble Prophet, may the Peace and Blessings of Allah
be upon him and his folk, and his true successors, we do not deny the
existence of foreign elements among the Muslim gnostics and sufis.
Many of the views and manners of behaviour of the sufi orders are
disputable.
Section 2
The Concepts of 'Irfan, Sufism, Hikmat and
Philosophy
Before explaining the originality of Islamic
gnosis, in order to avoid confusion and misunderstanding it is
appropriate here to give an explanation of the terms gnosis (irfan)
and sufism (tasawwuf).
The term gnosis (irfan), like another term of the
same family, marifah, [also translated as gnosis] literally means
knowledge, but its technical meaning is specific to knowledge of a
certain kind which can be achieved neither through the senses nor
experience, nor through reason nor narration, but rather is acquired
by inner witnessings and interior unveilings.
Then, these are generalized to some propositions
which describe these witnessings and unveilings. Considering the fact
that the acquisition of such witnessings and unveilings which depend
on special exercises and spiritual discipline are also called gnosis
(irfan), it is known with the qualification amali (practical), i.e.,
as practical gnosis, or the manner of spiritual wayfaring (sayr wa
suluk), just as the propositions which describe the witnessings are
called theoretical gnosis, and also, like the Philosophy of
Illumination, [1] is mixed to some extent with rational argumentation.
The expression sufism (tasawwuf), which, according
to the most likely possibility, is derived from the word suf (wool),
meaning wearing woolen garments, which symbolizes the hard life far
from comforts and hedonism, is more appropriately used for practical
gnosis, as the term gnosis ('irfan) is more appropriate to theoretical
gnosis. In this way, in the realm of gnosis, at least three elements
can be identified. One is the specific practical instructions which
are alleged to lead man to intuitive and interior gnosis and conscious
knowledge by presence related to God, the Exalted, and the Most
Beautiful Names and His sublime attributes and their manifestations.
The second is the specific spiritual and psychic states and traits of
character, and ultimately, the unveilings and witnessings achieved by
the wayfarer.
The third is the propositions and statements
indicating these intuitive direct findings, and even for those who
personally have not travelled the pant of practical gnosis, can be
more or less understood, although finding their truth and essence is
specific to the true gnostics.
By attending to these explanations it becomes clear
that the true gnostic is the one who follows a specific practical
programme and attains an intuitive and direct gnosis of God, the
Exalted, and His attributes and actions. Theoretical gnosis is, in
fact, an account and interpretation of this gnosis, which, naturally,
has many shortcomings. If we are not very exact about the terminology
and expand its scope we can use the term gnosis for all spiritual
wayfaring which is undertaken to find the truth and attain felicity,
as well as the resulting spiritual states and witnessings. In this
way, gnosis will include even the kinds of gnosis found in Buddhism
and Hinduism and the gnosis of some of the tribes of Siberia and the
native tribes of Africa, just as the term religion may be applied,
with the same sort of extended meaning to Buddhism, totemism, and the
like.
Here it is appropriate to indicate the concepts of
wisdom and philosophy, too.
The expression hikmah (wisdom), which is an
originally Arabic word, means a firm and certain gnosis (marifah),
and it is often applied to practical gnosis, as the sense in which it
is used in the Glorious Qur'an (17:39). However, in current
terminology it has the meaning of divine philosophy as well as
practical philosophy and the science of ethics, and in ethics itself
it is used in the sense of a trait of the soul related to the use of
reason, and as the mean between the extremes of cunning and stupidity.
In any case, it is not applied to atheistic philosophies or
skepticism, to the contrary of philosophy which is derived from Greek
roots meaning any intellectual or rational efforts to understand the
problems of all existence, even if this leads to the rejection of
certain and established gnosis, or even the rejection of objective
existence.
Notes:
[1]. The Philosophy of illumination was formulated
by Shihab al?Din Yahya Sohravardi (1153?1191).
Section 3
The Originality of Islamic Gnosis
Anyone who attends carefully to the ayat of the
Glorious Qur'an, the words of the Noble Prophet, and the pure people
of his household, may the Blessings of Allah be upon them, all of
them, without a doubt will be able to find many sublime and profound
subjects in the realm of theoretical gnosis, as well as numerous
prescriptions and practical instructions in relation to the spiritual
wayfaring of the gnostic. For example, we can refer to the ayat
related to the unicity of the divine essence, attributes and actions
in Surat al?Tawhid (Ikhlas) as well as the beginning of Surat
al?Hadid, and the last ayat of Surat al Hashr, and likewise the ayat
indicating the divine presence throughout the world of being, and His
comprehension over all existents, and the existential glorification
and prostrations of all creatures for God, the Exalted.
Likewise, there are ayat which include special
prescriptions and manners which can be called the way of Islamic
spiritual wayfaring, such as the ayat pertaining to contemplation and
meditation, constant remembrance (dhikr) and attention, rising in the
pre-dawn hours and remaining awake at night, fasting, prolonged
prostrations and glorifications during nights, humility and
resignation, crying and falling down when reciting and listening to
the ayat of the Qur'an, sincerity in worship, and the performance of
good deeds out of love and affection toward God in order to achieve
nearness to Him and His satisfaction, as well as ayat pertaining to
trust in God, divine pleasure, and submission before the Lord.
The points which can be found among the narrations
attributed to the Noble Prophet and Pure Imams, may Allah bless all of
them, and in their supplications and intimate devotions related to the
above topics are uncountable.
In view of these explicit ayat and dear
explications of the Noble Prophet and his immaculate household, May
God's infinite blessings be showered upon them, two groups have gone
to opposite extremes. One group of narrow minded and superficial
people give a trivial and simple meaning to these ayat, and even
consider God as having mutable states and physical ascent and descent,
and they empty the ayat and narrations of their noble and sublime
contents. These are the sort of people who generally reject the
existence of anything by the name of gnosis in the Islamic texts.
Another group under the influence of various social
factors have discovered and accepted some strange foreign elements
from others, as a result of which they have come to believe things
which one cannot consider to originate from religious texts and the
contents of the divine Book and Sunnah. Rather, some of them might be
in opposition to the explicit texts which are not capable of exoteric
interpretation. Likewise, regarding practice, they have invented their
own rites and customs, on the one hand, or have borrowed them from
non?Islamic sects. On the other hand, they believe in the suspension
of duties for the accomplished gnostic.
Of course, those who have an exceptionally
favourable opinion of all gnostics and sufis have given excuses and
interpretations for all of these issues. But it is fair to say that at
least some of these contentions do not have an acceptable
justification, and we should not be so over impressed with the
scholarly and spiritual greatness of some figures that we accept
whatever they say or write with closed eyes and ears and confirm them,
and deny others any right to criticize and inquire into their works.
Of course, it is clear that the acceptance of the
right to criticize does not mean to condone unrefined or ill
considered judgments, or the unfair expression of bias, nor the
failure to pay due heed to positive and valuable points. In any case,
one should seek what is right and true, and travel the way of justice
and fairness and avoid extreme and unreasonable optimism and pessimism
and seek help from God to recognize the truth and to be persistent in
the way of the Truth.
It is self-evident that to observe all the issues
pertaining to gnosis, sufism, wisdom and philosophy and their
interrelations and each of their relations with Islam is not a task to
be performed within the confines of a single article. Thus,
considering the summary nature of the remarks, we shall be concerned
with the most significant points, and postpone further investigation
to the occasion of more extensive discussion.
Section 4
Gnosis and Reason
One of the fundamental problems which is a matter
of contention between the supporters and opponents of gnosis is
whether reason can make any judgment about what is given through
gnosis, which is supposedly acquired by interior unveilings and
witnessings, or whether, for example, reason can refute some of them
or not. The answer to this question is important with regard to the
fact that many gnostics make assertions which cannot be given any
rational explanation. They claim that they discovered these things
through the esoteric way, and that reason does not have the capacity
to understand them, and naturally, that reason thus has no right to
refute or reject them.
The most important subject of this kind of
controversy is that of the unity of existence (wahdat al-wujud), which
has been propounded in various forms. One is that, basically, there is
nothing, has been nothing and shall be nothing but God, the Exalted.
Whatever has been called other than Him, is said to be nothing more
than illusions and fantasies. Another form of this proposition is that
nothing exists outside the essence of God or outside the vessel of His
knowledge. In this way, a sort of multiplicity in oneness may be
accepted. Another form of this claim, which is more prevalent, is that
the wayfarer at the end of his journey, reaches the station of
annihilation (land ), and nothing remains of him save a name. Finally,
the most moderate form of the claim is that the wayfarer reaches a
station in which he sees nothing but God, and all things fade away
into God. In more exact terminology, he witnesses the fading of all
things into the existence of God, the Exalted, like the fading of a
weak light before the light of the sun.
In such cases, the opponents generally take
advantage of rational arguments, and the proponents eventually say
that these sorts of matters transcend the limits of reason. In this
way they shirk the burden of the rational explanation of their claims.
Considering these developments, this basic question will be posed: Are
there truths about which reason is incapable of comprehending and has
no right to reject?
What may be said in summary here is that although
reason is concerned with concepts and the function of reason is not to
recognize the truth of the objective existence or origin of any
objective thing, let alone the divine exalted existence, but the
positive and negative judgments of reason, when they are self?evident
or may lead to self-evidence, are undeniable and through concepts may
be applied to objective things. The assumption of the error of such
judgments involves contradiction. In other words, although the
function of reason is not knowledge of the origins of existence, with
the above?mentioned qualifications, there can be no doubt about the
validity of judgments about phenomena.
As for the issue of the unity of existence, it must
be said that the denial of existence of things other than God and the
absolute denial of multiplicity not only imply the denial of the
validity of the judgments of reason, but also involve the denial of
the validity of knowledge by presence belonging to the active and
passive aspects of the soul. In this way, how can we hold that
witnessings and unveilings have any validity, regarding the fact that
the best evidence for their validity is their being present to
consciousness? So, the unity of existence, on this interpretation, is
not acceptable at all. However, we may consider an acceptable
interpretation which is propounded in transcendent philosophy [2] from
which it is obtained that the existence of creatures in relation to
God, the Exalted, is a relative and dependent existence, and to be
precise it may be said that they are the very relation and dependence,
and they have no independence of their own.That which is discovered by
the gnostic is this very denial of the independence of other things
[than God], which they call the denial of their real existence.
Here the question may be posed in another form: Can
we consider the judgment of reason prior to intuition and unveiling.
In reply, it should be said that pure knowledge by presence is in
truth the discovery of reality itself. Thus, it is irrefutable.
However, knowledge by presence is usually accompanied by a subjective
interpretation in such a way that any distinction between them
requires great care.
These subjective interpretations which involve
conceptual knowledge, are fallible. What are rejected by rational
proofs are incorrect subjective interpretations of observations and
knowledge by pretence, not the objects of knowledge by presence
themselves. In the case of the unity of existence, that which is
realized through witnessings is restricted to the independent
existence of God, the Exalted, which due to inattention is called true
existence, according to which true existence is denied of other
existents.
It is worth mentioning that the great Islamic
gnostics have explicitly claimed that some unveilings are Satanic,
invalid, and may be recognized through some evidence, and ultimately
may be distinguished from others by placing them under the scrutiny of
rational certain arguments, the divine Book and the Sunnah.
It is clear that an investigation into all the
kinds of unveilings and witnessings and the types of knowledge by
presence and the ways in which they are qualitatively reflected in the
mind, the causes for the incorrectness of some subjective
interpretations and the way to distinguish the correct from the
incorrect, are beyond the scope of this article.
[2]. Transcendent philosophy refers to the
philosophy of Sadr al-Din Shirazi, known as Mulla Sadra (1571-1640).
Section 5
Gnosis and Religious Law
Another important problem worthy of consideration
at the end of this article is the relation between practical gnosis
and the precepts of religious law, or the relation between tariqah and
shari'ah. A group has imagined that practical gnosis is an independent
way to discover truths, to be used without regard to religious law,
and that Islam either corroborates it (by acceptable innovation) or;
at the very least, poses no obstacle to it. And they have continued in
this direction to the point of holding that basically, they considered
it to be unnecessary to be committed to any religion in order to reach
gnostic stations, and others have considered commitment to any one of
the religions, and in a more moderate form, commitment to one of the
divine religions, to be sufficient.
However, from an Islamic point of view, gnostic
spiritual wayfaring is not along a way independent of and aside from
that of religious law; rather it is a more exact and subtle part of
it. If we restrict the term shari'ah to the outward precepts, it must
be said that tariqah is along with shari'ah, or in its interior, and
it may only be realized with the observation of the precepts of
shari'ah. For example, shari'ah determines the precepts for the ritual
prayer; and tariqah undertakes the ways of concentration and the
presence of the heart in prayer; and the conditions for the perfection
of worship. In shari'ah the performance of worship in order to avoid
divine chastisement and to reach the blessings of heaven is
sufficient.
However, gnosis emphasizes the purification of
intentions of everything other than God. This is what is known in the
language of the Ahl al Bayt, Peace be upon them, as "the worship of
the free." Likewise, idolatry (shirk) according to shari'ah is
exoteric idolatry by worshipping idols and the like; however, in
tariqah there are more precise types of hidden idolatry and levels of
hiddenness. Having any hope in anything other than God, fear of other
than God, seeking the help of other than God, and love for other than
Him, if all of these are taken as fundamental and independent, and not
based on obedience to the divine commands, they will be considered
kinds of idolatry.
Therefore, all kinds of innovations (bidah) and
arbitrary rites are not only undesirable but may be obstacles to the
achievement of true gnosis, let alone the use of things which have
been explicitly and definitely prohibited and forbidden. Although it
may be the case that some works may bring about transient so-called
gnostic states, they do not have a good result. They may be a Satanic
trap for ultimate downfall, and we should not be deceived by them. It
is to be concluded that the way of Truth is the one that God, the
Exalted, has stated:
And what is there after the truth but error?
(10:32)
And Peace be upon those who follow the Guidance.
