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YAQUB IBN ISHAQ AL-KINDI
(800-873 C.E.)
Abu Yousuf Yaqub Ibn Ishaq
al-Kindi was born at Kufa
around 800 C.E. His father was an official of Haroon
al-Rashid. Al-Kindi was a contemporary of al-Mamun, al-Mu'tasim and al-Mutawakkil and flourished largely at Baghdad.
He vas formally employed by Mutawakkil as a
calligrapher. On account of his philosophical views, Mutawakkil
was annoyed with him and confiscated all his books. These were, however,
returned later on. He died in 873 C.E. during the reign of al-M'utamid.
Al-Kindi was a
philosopher, mathematician, physicist, astronomer, physician, geographer and
even an expert in music. It is surprising that he made original contributions
to all of these fields. On account of his work he became known as the
philosopher of the Arabs.
In mathematics, he wrote four books on the number
system and laid the foundation of a large part of modern arithmetic. No doubt
the Arabic system of numerals was largely developed by al- Khawarizmi,
but al-Kindi also made rich contributions to it. He
also contributed to spherical geometry to assist him in astronomical studies.
In chemistry, he opposed the idea that base
metals can be converted to precious metals. In contrast to prevailing
alchemical views, he was emphatic that chemical reactions cannot bring about
the transformation of elements. In physics, he made rich contributions to
geometrical optics and wrote a book on it. This book later on provided guidance
and inspiration to such eminent scientists as Roger Bacon.
In medicine, his chief contribution comprises the
fact that he was the first to systematically determine the doses to be
administered of all the drugs known at his time. This resolved the conflicting
views prevailing among physicians on the dosage that caused difficulties in
writing recipes.
Very little was known on the scientific aspects
of music in his time. He pointed out that the various notes that combine to
produce harmony, have a specific pitch each. Thus, notes with too low or too
high a pitch are non-pleatant.
The degree of harmony depends on the frequency of notes, etc. He also pointed
out the fact that when a sound is produced, it generates waves in the air which
strike the ear-drum. His work contains a notation on the determination of
pitch.
He was a prolific writer,
the total number of books written by him was 241, the prominent among which
were divided as follows:
Astronomy 16, Arithmetic 11, Geometry 32, Medicine 22,
Physics 12, Philosophy 22, Logic 9, Psychology 5, and Music 7.
In addition, various monographs
written by him concern tides, astronomical instruments, rocks, precious stones,
etc. He was also an early translator of Greek works into Arabic, but
this fact has largely been over-shadowed by his numerous original writings. It
is unfortunate that most of his books are no longer extant, but those existing
speak very high of his standard of scholarship and contribution. He was known
as Alkindus in Latin and a large number of his books
were translated into Latin by Gherard of Cremona. His books that were translated into Latin during
the Middle Ages comprise Risalah
dar Tanjim, Ikhtiyarat al-Ayyam,
Ilahyat-e-Aristu, al-Mosiqa,
Mad-o-Jazr, and Aduiyah
Murakkaba.
Al-Kindi's influence on
development of science and philosophy was significant in the revival of
sciences in that period. In the Middle Ages, Cardano considered him as one of the twelve greatest minds.
His works, in fact, lead to further development of various subjects for
centuries, notably physics, mathematics, medicine and music.
ABU AL-NASR AL-FARABI
(870-950 C.E.)
Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn al-Farakh al-Farabi was born in a small village Wasij,
near Farab in Turkistan in 259
A.H. (870 C.E.). His parents were originally of Persian descent, but his
ancestors had migrated to Turkistan. Known as al-Phrarabius in Europe, Farabi was the son of a general. He completed his earlier
education at Farab and Bukhara but, later on, he went to Baghdad
for higher studies, where he studied and worked for a long time viz., from 901
C.E. to 942 C.E. During this period he acquired mastery over several languages
as well as various branches of knowledge and technology. He lived through the
reign of six Abbasid Caliphs. As a philosopher and scientist, he acquired great
proficiency in various branches of learning and is reported to have been an
expert in different languages.
Farabi travelled to many distant lands and studied for some time
in Damascus and Egypt,
but repeatedly came back to Baghdad,
until he visited Saif al-Daula's
court in Halab (Allepo). He
became one of the constant companions of the King, and it was here at Halab that his fame spread far and wide. During his early
years he was a Qadi (Judge), but later on the took up teaching as his profession. During the course of
his career, he had suffered great hardships and at one time was the caretaker
of a garden. He died a bachelor in Damascus
in 339 A.H./950 C.E. at the age of 80 years.
Farabi contributed
considerably to science, philosophy, logic, sociology, medicine, mathematics
and music. His major contributions seem to be in philosophy,
logic and sociology and, of course, stands out as an Encyclopedist.
As a philosopher, he may be classed as a Neoplatonist
who tried to synthesize Platonism and Aristotelism
with theology and he wrote such rich commentaries on Aristotle's physics,
meteorology, logic, etc., in addition to a large number of books on several
other subjects embodying his original contribution, that he came to be known as
the 'Second Teacher' (al-Mou'allim al-Thani) Aristotle being the First. One of the important
contributions of Farabi was to make the study of
logic more easy by dividing it into two categories
viz., Takhayyul (idea) and Thubut
(proof).
In sociology he wrote several books out of which Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila became
famous. His books on psychology and metaphysics were largely based on his own
work. He also wrote a book on music, captioned Kitab
al-Musiqa. He was a great expert in the art and
science of music and invented several musical instruments, besides contributing
to the knowledge of musical notes. It has been reported that he could play his
instrument so well as to make people laugh or weep at will. In physics he
demonstrated the existence of void.
Although many of his books have been lost, 117
are known, out of which 43 are on logic, 11 on metaphysics, 7 on ethics, 7 on
political science, 17 on music, medicine and sociology, while 11 are
commentaries. Some of his more famous books include the book Fusus al-Hikam,
which remained a text book of philosophy for several centuries at various centres of learning and is still taught at some of the
institutions in the East. The book Kitab
al-lhsa al 'Ulum
discusses classification and fundamental principles of science in a unique and
useful manner. The book Ara Ahl al-Madina al- Fadila 'The Model City' is a significant early
contribution to sociology snd political science.
Farabi exercised great
influence on science and knowledge for several centuries. Unfortunately, the
book Theology of Aristotle, as was available to him at that time was
regarded by him as genuine, although later on it turned out to be the work of
some Neoplatonic writer. Despite this, he was
regarded the Second Teacher in philosophy for centuries and his work, aimed at
synthesis of philosophy and Sufism, paved the way for Ibn
Sina's work.
ABU RAIHAN AL-BIRUNI
(973-1048 C.E.)
Abu Raihan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was one of
the well-known figures associated with the court of King Mahmood
Ghaznawi, who was one of the famous Muslim kings of
the 11th century C.E. Al-Biruni was a versatile
scholar and scientist who had equal facility in physics, metaphysics,
mathematics, geography and history. Born in the city of Kheva near "Ural" in 973
C.E., he was a contemporary of the well-known physician Ibn
Sina. At an early age, the fame of his scholarship
went around and when Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi conquered his homeland, he took al-Biruni along with him in his journeys to India several
times and thus he had the opportunity to travel all over India during a period
of 20 years. He learnt Hindu philosophy, mathematics, geography and religion
from three Pandits to whom he taught Greek and Arabic
science and philosophy. He died in 1048 C.E. at the age of 75, after having
spent 40 years in thus gathering knowledge and making his own original
contributions to it.
He recorded observations of his travels through India
in his well-known book Kitab al-Hind
which gives a graphic account of the historical and social conditions of the
sub-continent. At the end of this book he makes a mention of having translated
two Sanskrit books into Arabic, one called Sakaya,
which deals with the creation of things and their types, and the second, Patanjal dealing with what happens after the spirit
leaves the body. His descriptions of India were so complete that even the Aein-i-Akbari written by Abu-al- Fadal
during the reign of Akbar, 600 years later, owes a
great deal to al-Biruni's book. He observed that the Indus
valley must be considered as an ancient sea basin filled up with alluvials.
On his return from India,
al-Biruni wrote his famous book Qanun-i
Masoodi (al-Qanun
al-Masudi, fi al-Hai'a wa
al-Nujum), which he dedicated to Sultan Masood. The book discusses several theories of astronomy,
trigonometry, solar, lunar, and planetary motions and relative topics. In
another well-known book al-Athar al-Baqia, he has attempted a connected account of ancient
history of nations and the related geographical knowledge. In this book, he has
discussed the rotation of the earth and has given correct values of latitudes
and longitudes of various places. He has also made considerable contribution to
several aspects of physical and economic geography in this book.
His other scientific contributions include the
accurate determination of the densities of 18 different stones. He also wrote
the Kitab-al-Saidana, which is an extensive materia medica that combines the
then existing Arabic knowledge on the subject with the Indian medicine. His
book the Kitab-al-Jamahir deals with the
properties of various precious stones. He was also an astrologer and is reputed
to have astonished people by the accuracy of his predictions. He gave a clear
account of Hindu numerals, elaborating the principle of position. Summation of
a geometric progression appropos of the chess game
led to the number:
1616 - 1 =
18,446,744,073,709,551,619.
He developed a method for trisection of angle and
other problems which cannot be solved with a ruler and a compass alone. Al-Biruni discussed, centuries before the rest of the world,
the question whether the earth rotates around its axis or not. He was the
first to undertake experiments related to astronomical phenomena. His
scientific method, taken together with that of other Muslim scientists, such as
Ibn al-Haitham, laid down
the early foundation of modern science. He ascertained that as compared with
the speed of sound the speed of light is immense. He explained the working of
natural springs and artesian wells by the hydrostatic principle of
communicating vessels. His investigations included description of various
monstrosities, including that known as "Siamese" twins. He observed
that flowers have 3,4,5,6, or 18 petals, but never 7 or 9.
He wrote a number of books and treatises. Apart
from Kitab-al- Hind (History and
Geography of India), al-Qanun al-Masudi (Astro- nomy, Trigonometry), al-Athar
al-Baqia (Ancient History and Geography), Kitab al-Saidana (Materia Medica) and Kitab al-Jawahir
(Precious Stones) as mentioned above, his book al-Tafhim-li-Awail
Sina'at al-Tanjim gives
a summary of mathematics and astronomy.
He has been considered as one of the very
greatest scientists of Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatest of all
times. His critical spirit, love of truth, and scientific approach were
combined with a sense of toleration. His enthusiasm for knowledge may be judged
from his claim that the phrase Allah is Omniscient does not justify
ignorance.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) - doctor of doctors
Ibn Sina
was born in 980 C.E. in the village of Afshana near Bukhara which today is
located in the far south of Russia. His father,
Abdullah, an adherent of the Ismaili sect, was from Balkh and his mother from
a village near Bukhara.
In any age Ibn Sina,
known in the West as Avicenna, would have been a giant among giants. He
displayed exceptional intellectual prowess as a child and at the age of ten was
already proficient in the Qur'an and the Arabic classics.
During the next six years he devoted himself to Muslim Jurisprudence,
Philosophy and Natural Science and studied Logic, Euclid, and the Almeagest.
He turned his attention to Medicine at the age of 17 years and
found it, in his own words, "not difficult". However he was
greatly troubled by metaphysical problems and in particular the works of
Aristotle. By chance, he obtained a manual on this subject by the celebrated
philosopher al-Farabi which solved his difficulties.
By the age of 18 he had built up a reputation as a physician and
was summoned to attend the Samani ruler Nuh ibn Mansur
(reigned 976-997 C.E.), who, in gratitude for Ibn
Sina's services, allowed him to make free use of the
royal library, which contained many rare and even unique books. Endowed with
great powers of absorbing and retaining knowledge, this Muslim scholar devoured
the contents of the library and at the age of 21 was in a position to compose
his first book.
At about the same time he lost his father and soon afterwards left
Bukhara and wandered
westwards. He entered the services of Ali ibn Ma'mun, the ruler of Khiva, for a
while, but ultimately fled to avoid being kidnapped by the Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna. After many
wanderings he came to Jurjan, near the Caspian Sea, attracted by the
fame of its ruler, Qabus, as a patron of learning.
Unfortunately Ibn Sina's
arrival almost coincided with the deposition and murder of this ruler. At Jurjan, Ibn Sina
lectured on logic and astronomy and wrote the first part of the Qanun, his greatest work.
He then moved to Ray, near modern Teheran and
established a busy medical practice. When Ray was besieged, Ibn
Sina fled to Hamadan where he cured Amir Shamsud-Dawala of colic and
was made Prime Minister. A mutiny of soldiers against him caused his dismissal
and imprisonment, but subsequently the Amir, being
again attacked by the colic, summoned him back, apologised
and reinstated him! His life at this time was very strenuous: during the day he
was busy with the Amir's services, while a great deal
of the night was passed in lecturing and dictating notes for his books.
Students would gather in his home and read parts of his two great books, the Shifa and the Qanun, already
composed.
Following the death of the Amir, Ibn Sina fled to Isfahan after a few brushes
with the law, including a period in prison. He spent his final years in the
services of the ruler of the city, Ala al-Daula whom he advised on scientific and literary matters
and accompanied on military campaigns.
Friends advised him to slow down and take life in moderation, but
this was not in character. "I prefer a short life with width to a
narrow one with length", he would reply. Worn out by hard work and
hard living, Ibn Sina died
in 1036/1 at a comparatively early age of 58 years. He was buried in Hamadan where his grave is
still shown.
Al-Qifti states that Ibn
Sina completed 21 major and 24 minor works on
philosophy, medicine, theology, geometry, astronomy and the like. Another
source (Brockelmann) attributes 99 books to Ibn Sina comprising 16 on
medicine, 68 on theology and metaphysics 11 on astronomy and four on verse.
Most of these were in Arabic; but in his native Persian he wrote a large manual
on philosophical science entitled Danish-naama-i-Alai
and a small treatise on the pulse.
His most celebrated
Arabic poem describes the descent of Soul into the Body from the Higher Sphere.
Among his scientific works, the leading two are the Kitab
al-Shifa
(Book of Healing), a philosophical encyclopaedia
based upon Aristotelian traditions and the al-Qanun
al-Tibb which represents the final categorisation of Greco-Arabian thoughts on Medicine.
Of Ibn Sina's
16 medical works, eight are versified treatises on such matter as the 25 signs
indicating the fatal termination of illnesses, hygienic precepts, proved
remedies, anatomical memoranda etc. Amongst his prose works, after the great Qanun, the treatise on cardiac drugs, of which the British Museum possesses several
fine manuscripts, is probably the most important, but it remains unpublished.
The Qanun is, of course, by far the
largest, most famous and most important of Ibn Sina's works. The work contains about one million words and
like most Arabic books, is elaborately divided and subdivided. The main
division is into five books, of which the first deals with general principles;
the second with simple drugs arranged alphabetically; the third with diseases
of particular organs and members of the body from the head to the foot; the
fourth with diseases which though local in their inception spread to other
parts of the body, such as fevers and the fifth with compound medicines.
The Qanun distinguishes mediastinitis from pleurisy and recognises
the contagious nature of phthisis (tuberculosis of the lung) and the spread of
disease by water and soil. It gives a scientific diagnosis of ankylostomiasis and attributes the condition to an
intestinal worm. The Qanun points out the importance
of dietetics, the influence of climate and environment on health and the
surgical use of oral anaesthetics. Ibn Sina advised surgeons to
treat cancer in its earliest stages, ensuring the removal of all the diseased
tissue. The Qanun's materia
medica considers some 760 drugs, with comments on
their application and effectiveness. He recommended the testing of a new drug
on animals and humans prior to general use.
Ibn Sina noted the close relationship
between emotions and the physical condition and felt that music had a definite
physical and psychological effect on patients. Of the many psychological
disorders that he described in the Qanun, one is of
unusual interest: love sickness! ibn
Sina is reputed to have diagnosed this condition in a
Prince in Jurjan who lay sick and whose malady had
baffled local doctors. Ibn Sina
noted a fluttering in the Prince's pulse when the address and name of his
beloved were mentioned. The great doctor had a simple remedy: unite the
sufferer with the beloved.
The Arabic text of the Qanun was
published in Rome in 1593 and was
therefore one of the earliest Arabic books to see print. It was translated into
Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century. This
'Canon', with its encyclopedic content, its systematic arrangement and
philosophical plan, soon worked its way into a position of pre-eminence in the
medical literature of the age displacing the works of Galen, al-Razi and al-Majusi, and becoming
the text book for medical education in the schools of Europe. In the last 30
years of the 15th century it passed through 15 Latin editions and one Hebrew.
In recent years, a partial translation into English was made. From the
12th-17th century, the Qanun served as the chief
guide to Medical Science in the West and is said to have influenced Leonardo da Vinci. In the words of Dr. William Osler,
the Qanun has remained "a medical bible for a
longer time than any other work".
Despite such glorious tributes to his work, Ibn Sina is rarely remembered in
the West today and his fundamental contributions to Medicine and the European
reawakening goes largely unrecognized. However, in the museum at Bukhara, there are displays
showing many of his writings, surgical instruments from the period and
paintings of patients undergoing treatment. An impressive monument to the life
and works of the man who became known as the 'doctor of doctors' still stands
outside Bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the
Hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.
ABU HAMID AL-GHAZALI
(1058-1128 C.E.)
Abu Hamid Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Tusi al-Shafi'i al-Ghazali was born in 1058 C.E. in Khorasan, Iran.
His father died while he was still very young but he had the opportunity of
getting education in the prevalent curriculum at Nishapur
and Baghdad. Soon he acquired a
high standard of scholarship in religion and philosophy and was honoured by his appointment as a Professor at the Nizamiyah University of Baghdad, which was recognised as one of the most reputed institutions of
learning in the golden era of Muslim history.
After a few years, however, he gave up his
academic pursuits and worldly interests and became a wandering ascetic. This
was a process (period) of mystical transformation. Later, he resumed his
teaching duties, but again left these. An era of solitary life, devoted to
contemplation and writing then ensued, which led to the authorship of a number
of everlasting books. He died in 1128 C.E. at Baghdad.
Ghazali's major
contribution lies in religion, philosophy and sufism. A number of Muslim philosophers had been
following and developing several viewpoints of Greek philosophy, including the Neoplatonic philosophy, and this was leading to conflict
with several Islamic teachings. On the other hand, the movement of sufism was assuming such excessive
proportions as to avoid observance of obligatory prayers and duties of Islam.
Based on his unquestionable scholarship and personal mystical experience, Ghazali sought to rectify these trends, both in philosophy
and sufism.
In philosophy, Ghazali
upheld the approach of mathematics and exact sciences as essentially correct.
However, he adopted the techniques of Aristotelian logic and the Neoplatonic procedures and employed these very tools to lay
bare the flaws and lacunae of the then prevalent Neoplatonic
philosophy and to diminish the negative influences of Aristotelianism
and excessive rationalism. In contrast to some of the Muslim philosophers,
e.g., Farabi, he portrayed the inability of reason to
comprehend the absolute and the infinite. Reason could not
transcend the finite and was limited to the observation of the relative. Also,
several Muslim philosophers had held that the universe was finite in space but
infinite in time. Ghazali argued that an infinite
time was related to an infinite space. With his clarity of thought and force of
argument, he was able to create a balance between religion and reason, and
identified their respective spheres as being the infinite and the finite,
respectively.
In religion, particularly mysticism, he cleansed
the approach of sufism of
its excesses and reestablished the authority of the orthodox religion. Yet, he
stressed the importance of genuine sufism,
which he maintained was the path to attain the absolute truth.
He was a prolific writer. His immortal books
include Tuhafut al-Falasifa
(The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Ihya
al-'Ulum al-Islamia
(The Rivival of the Religious Sciences), "The Beginning
of Guidance and his Autobiography", "Deliverance from Error".
Some of his works were translated into European languages in the Middle Ages. He also wrote a summary of astronomy.
Ghazali's influence was
deep and everlasting. He is one of the greatest theologians of Islam. His
theological doctrines penetrated Europe, influenced
Jewish and Christian Scholasticism and several of his arguments seem to have
been adopted by St. Thomas Aquinas in order to similarly reestablish the
authority of orthodox Christian religion in the West. So forceful was his
argument in the favour of religion that he was
accused of damaging the cause of philosophy and, in the Muslim Spain, Ibn Rushd (Averros)
wrote a rejoinder to his Tuhafut.
IBN RUSHD
(1128-1198 C.E.)
Abu'l Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes in the
West, was born in 1128 C.E. in Cordova, where his father and grandfather had
both been judges. His grandfather was well versed in Fiqh
(Maliki School)
and was also the Imam of the Jamia Mosque of Cordova.
The young Ibn Rushd
received his education in Cordova and lived a quiet life, devoting most of his
time to learned-pursuits. He studied philoso- phy and law from Abu J'afar Haroon and from Ibn Baja; he also
studied medicine.
Al-Hakam, the famous
Umayyad Caliph of Spain, had construc- ted a magnificent library in Cordova, which housed 500,000
books, He himself had studied many of these and made brief marginal comments on
them. This rich collection laid the foundation for intellectual study in Spain
and provided the background for men like Ibn Rushd, who lived 2 centuries later.
Abu Yaqub, the Caliph
of Morocco, called him to his capital and appointed him as his physician in
place of Ibn Tufail. His
son Yaqub al-Mansur
retained him for some time but soon Ibn Rushd's views on theology and philosophy drew the Caliph's
wrath. All his books, barring strictly scientific ones, were burnt and he was
banished to Lucena. However, as a result of
intervention of several leading scholars he was forgiven after about four years
and recalled to Morocco
in 1198; but he died towards the end of the same year.
Ibn Rushd
made remarkable contributions. in philosophy, logic,
medicine, music and jurisprudence. In medicine his well- known book Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb was written before
1162 C.E. Its Latin translation was known as 'Colliget'.
In it, Ibn Rushd has thrown
light on various aspects of medicine, including the diagnoses, cure and
prevention of diseases. The book concentrates on specific areas in comparison
of Ibn Sina's wider scope
of al-Qanun, but contains several original
observations of Ibn Rushd.
In philosophy, his most important work Tuhafut al-Tuhafut
was written in response to al-Ghazali's work. Ibn Rushd was criticised
by many Muslim scholars for this book, which, neverthe-
less, had a profound influence on European thought, at least until the
beginning of modern philosophy and experimental science. His views on fate were
that man is neither in full control of his destiny nor is it fully predetermined
for him. He wrote three commenlaries on the works of
Aristotle, as these were known then through Arabic translations. The shortest Jami may be considered as a summary of the subject.
The intermediate was Talkhis and the longest
was the Tafsir. These three commentaries would
seem to correspond to different stages in the education of pupils; the short
one was meant for the beginners, then the intermediate for the students
familiar with the subject, and finally the longest one for advanced studies.
The longest commentary was, in fact, an original contribution as it was largely
based on his analysis including interpretation of Qu'ranic
concepts.
In the field of music, Ibn
Rushd wrote a commentary on Aristotle's book De
Anima. This book was translated into Latin by Mitchell the Scott.
In astronomy he wrote a treatise on the motion of
the sphere, Kitab fi-Harakat
al-Falak. He also summarised
Almagest and divided it into two parts: description of the spheres, and
movement of the spheres. This summary of the Almagest was translated
from Arabic into Hebrew by Jacob Anatoli in 1231.
According to Ibn al-Abbar, Ibn Rushd's
writings spread over 20,000 pages, the most famous of which deal with
philosophy, medicine and jurisprudence. On medicine alone he wrote 20 books.
Regarding jurisprudence, his book Bidayat
al-Mujtahid wa-Nihayat- al-Muqtasid has been held by Ibn
Jafar Thahabi as possibly
the best book on the Maliki School of Fiqh. Ibn Rushd's
writings were translated into various languages, including Latin, English,
German and Hebrew. Most of his commentaries on philosophy are preserved in the
Hebrew translations, or in Latin translations from the Hebrew, and a few in the
original Arabic, generally in Hebrew script. This reveals his wider acceptance
in the West in comparison to the East. The commentary on zoology is entirely
lost. Ibn Rushd also wrote
commentaries on Plato's Republic, Galen's treatise on fevers, al- Farabi's logic, etc. Eighty-seven of his books are still
extant.
Ibn Rushd
has been held as one of the greatest thinkers and scientists of the 12th
century. According to Philip Hitti, Ibn Rushd influenced Western
thought from the 12th to the 16th centuries. His books were included in the
syllabi of Paris and other
universities till the advent of modern experimental sciences
NASIR AL-DIN AL-TUSI
(1201-1274 C.E.)
Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was born in Tus (Khurasan) in 1201 C.E. He learnt sciences and philosophy
from Kamal al-Din Ibn Yunus and others. He was one of those who were kidnapped by
Hasan Bin Sabah's agents
and sent to Almut, Hasan's
stronghold. In 1256 when Almut was conquered by the
Mongols, Nasir al-Din joined Halagu's
service. Halagu Khan was deeply impressed by his
knowledge, including his astrological competency; appointed him as one of his
ministers, and, later on, as administrator of Auqaf.
He was instrumental in the establishment and progress of the observatory at Maragha. In his last year of life he went to Baghdad
and died there.
Nasir al-Din was one of
the greatest scientists, philosaphers,
mathematicians, astronomers, theologians and physicians of the time and was a
prolific writer. He made significant contributions to a large number of
subjects, and it is indeed difficult to present his work in a few words. He
wrote one or several treatises on different sciences and subjects including
those on geometry, algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry, medicine, metaphysics,
logic, ethics and theology. In addition he wrote poetry in Persian.
In mathematics, his major contribution would seem
to be in trigonometry, which was compiled by him as a new subject in its own
right for the first time. Also he developed the subject of spherical
trigonometry, including six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical
right-angled triangles.
As the chief scientist at the observatory
established under his supervision at Maragha, he made
significant contributions to astronomy. The observatory was equipped with the
best possible instruments, including those collected by the Mongol armies from Baghdad
and other Islamic centres. The instruments included
astrolabes, representations of constellations, epicycles, shapes of spheres,
etc. He himself invented an instrument 'turquet' that
contained two planes. After the devoted work of 12 years at the observatory and
with the assistance of his group, he produced new astronomical tables called Al-Zij-Ilkhani dedicated to Ilkhan
(Halagu Khan). Although Tusi
had contemplated completing the tables in 30 years, the time required for the
completion of planetary cycles, but he had to complete them in 12 years on
orders from Halagu Khan. The tables were largely
based on original observa- tions,
but also drew upon the then existing knowledge on the subject. The Zij Ilkhani became
the most popular tables among astronomers and remained so till the 15th
century. Nasir al-Din pointed out several serious
shortcomings in Ptolemy's astronomy and foreshadowed the later dissatisfaction
with the system that culminated in the Copernican reforms.
In philosophy, apart from his contribution in
logic and meta- physics, his work on ethics entitled Akhlaq-i-Nasri
became the most important book on the subject, and remained popular for
centuries. His book Tajrid-al-'Aqaid
was a major work on al-Kalam (Islamic
Scholastic Philosophy) and enjoyed widespread popularity. Several
commentaries were written on this book and even a number of supercommentaries
on the major commentaries, Sharh Qadim and Sharh Jadid.
The list of his known treatises is exhaustive; Brockelmann lists 56 and Sarton
64. About one-fourth of these concern mathe- matics, another fourth astronomy, another fourth philosophy
and religion, and the remainder other subjects. The books, though originally
written in Arabic and Persian, were translated into Latin and other European
languages in the Middle Ages and several of these have
been printed.
Tusi's influence has
been significant
JALAL AL-DIN
RUMI
(1207-1273
C.E.)
Jalal al-Din Mohammad Ibn Mohammad Ibn Mohammad Ibn Husain al-Rumi
was born in 604 A.H. (1207/8 C.E.) at Balkh (now Afghanistan). His father Baha al-Din was a renowned religious scholar. Under his
patronage, Rumi received his early education from Syed Burhan-al-Din. When his age
was about 18 years, the family (after several migrations) finally settled at Konya and at the age of 25, Rumi was sent to Aleppo for advanced education and
later to Damascus. Rumi
continued with his education till he was 40 years old, although on his father's
death Rumi succeeded him as a professor in the famous
Madrasah at Konya at the age of about 24 years.
He received his mystical training first at the hands of Syed
Burhan al-Din and later he was trained by Shams
al-Din Tabriz. He became famous for his
mystical insight, his religious knowledge and as a Persian poet. He used to
teach a large number of pupils at his Madrasah and
also founded the famous Maulvi Order in Tasawwuf. He died in 672 A.H. (1273 C.E.) at Konya, which subsequently became a
sacred place for dancing derveshes of the Maulvi Order.
His
major contribution lies in Islamic philosophy and Tasawwuf.
This was embodied largely in poetry, especially through his famous Mathnawi. This book, the largest mystical exposition
in verse, discusses and offers solutions to many complicated problems in
metaphysics, religion, ethics, mysticism, etc. Fundamentally, the Mathnawi highlights the various hidden aspects of
Sufism and their relationship with the worldly life. For this, Rumi draws on a variety of subjects and derives numerous
examples from everyday life. His main subject is the relationship between man
and God on the one hand, and between man and man, on the other. He apparently
believed in Pantheism and portrayed the various stages of man's evolution in
his journey towards the Ultimate.
Apart
from the Mathnaui, he also wrote his Diwan (collection of poems) and Fihi-Ma-Fih
(a collection of mystical sayings). How- ever, it is the Mathnawi
itself that has largely transmitted Rumi's message.
Soon after its completion, other scholars started writing detailed commentaries
on it, in order to interpret its rich propositions on Tasawwuf,
Metaphysics and Ethics. Several commentaries in different languages have been
written since then.
His
impact on philosophy, literature, mysticism and culture, has been so deep
throughout Central
Asia
and most Islamic countries that almost all religious scholars, mystics,
philosophers, sociologists and others have referred to his verses during all
these centuries since his death. Most difficult problems in these areas seem to
get simpli- fied in the light
of his references. His message seems to have inspired most of the intellectuals
in Central
Asia
and adjoining areas since his time, and scholars like Iqbal
have further developed Rumi's concepts. The Mathnawi became known as the interpretation of the Qur'an in the Pahlavi language.
He is one of the few intellectuals and mystics whose views have so profoundly
affected the world-view in its higher perspective in large parts of the Islamic
World.
IBN KHALDUN
(1332-1395
C.E.)
Abd al-Rahman
Ibn Mohammad is generally known as Ibn Khaldun after a remote
ancestor. His parents, originally Yemenite Arabs, had settled in Spain, but after the fall of Seville, had migrated to Tunisia. He was born in Tunisia in 1332 C.E., where he received
his early education and where, still in his teens, he entered the service of
the Egyptian ruler Sultan Barquq. His thirst for
advanced knowledge and a better academic setting soon made him leave this
service and migrate to Fez. This was followed by a long period of unrest marked by
contemporary political rivalries affecting his career. This turbulent period
also included a three year refuge in a small village Qalat
Ibn Salama in Algeria, which provided him with the
opportunity to write Muqaddimah, the first
volume of his world history that won him an immortal place among historians,
sociologists and philosophers. The uncertainty of his career still continued,
with Egypt becoming his final abode where
he spent his last 24 years. Here he lived a life of fame and respect, marked by
his appointment as the Chief Malakite Judge and
lecturing at the Al-Azhar University, but envy caused his removal
from his high judicial office as many as five times.
Ibn Khaldun's
chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology. He sought to write
a world history preambled by a first volume aimed at
an analysis of historical events. This volume, commonly known as Muqaddimah or 'Prolegomena', was based on Ibn Khaldun's unique approach and
original contribution and became a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of
history and sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to
identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that
contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents of
history. In this context, he analysed the dynamics of
group relationships and showed how group-feelings, al-'Asabiyya,
give rise to the ascent of a new civilisation and
political power and how, later on, its diffusion into a more general
civilization invites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyya
in its pristine form. He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and
fall in human civilization, and analysed factors
contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that,
unlike most earlier writers interpreting history
largely in a political context, he emphasised
environmental, sociological, psychological and economic factors governing the
apparent events. This revolutionised the science of
history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat
(Sociology).
Apart
from the Muqaddimah that became an important
independent book even during the lifetime of the author, the other volumes of
his world history Kitab al-I'bar deal with the history of Arabs, contemporary
Muslim rulers, contemporary European rulers, ancient history of Arabs, Jews,
Greeks, Romans, Persians, etc., Islamic History, Egyptian history and
North-African history, especially that of Berbers and tribes living in the
adjoining areas. The last volume deals largely with the events of his own life
and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also
written in a scientific manner and initiated a new analytical tradition in the
art of writing autobiography. A book on mathematics written by him is not
extant.
Ibn Khaldun's
influence on the subject of history, philosophy of history, sociology,
political science and education has remained paramount ever since his life. His
books have been translated into many languages, both in the East and the West,
and have inspired subsequent development of these sciences. For instance, Prof.
Gum Ploughs and Kolosio consider Muqaddimah
as superior in scholarship to Machiavelli's The Prince written a century
later, as the forrner bases the diagnosis more on
cultural, sociological, economic and psychological factors.
