The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam [Electronic resources] نسخه متنی

The Philosophical Test of
the

Revelations of Religious Experience
Scholastic philosophy has put
forward three arguments for the existence of God. These arguments, known as the
Cosmological, the Teleological, and the Ontological, embody a real movement of thought in
its quest after the Absolute. But regarded as logical proofs, I am afraid, they are open
to serious criticism and further betray a rather superficial interpretation of experience.
The cosmological argument views
the world as a finite effect, and passing through a series of dependent sequences, related
as causes and effects, stops at an uncaused first cause, because of the unthinkability of
an infinite regress. It is, however, obvious that a finite effect can give only a finite
cause, or at most an infinite series of such causes. To finish the series at a certain
point, and to elevate one member of the series to the dignity of an uncaused first cause,
is to set at naught the very law of causation on which the whole argument proceeds.
Further, the first cause reached by the argument necessarily excludes its effect. And this
means that the effect, constituting a limit to its own cause, reduces it to something
finite. Again, the cause reached by the argument cannot be regarded as a necessary being
for the obvious reason that in the relation of cause and effect the two terms of the
relation are equally necessary to each other. Nor is the necessity of existence identical
with the conceptual necessity of causation which is the utmost that this argument can
prove. The argument really tries to reach the infinite by merely negating the finite. But
the infinite reached by contradicting the finite is a false infinite, which neither
explains itself nor the finite which is thus made to stand in opposition to the infinite.
The true infinite does not exclude the finite; it embraces the finite without effacing its
finitude, and explains and justifies its being. Logically speaking, then, the movement
from the finite to the infinite as embodied in the cosmological argument is quite
illegitimate; and the argument fails in toto. The teleological argument is no better. It
scrutinizes the effect with a view to discover the character of its cause. From the traces
of foresight, purpose, and adaptation in nature, it infers the existence of a
self-conscious being of infinite intelligence and power. At best, it gives us a skilful
external contriver working on a pre-existing dead and intractable material the elements of
which are, by their own nature, incapable of orderly structures and combinations. The
argument gives us a contriver only and not a creator; and even if we suppose him to be
also the creator of his material, it does no credit to his wisdom to create his own
difficulties by first creating intractable material, and then overcoming its resistance by
the application of methods alien to its original nature. The designer regarded as external
to his material must always remain limited by his material, and hence a finite designer
whose limited resources compel him to overcome his difficulties after the fashion of a
human mechanician. The truth is that the analogy on which the argument proceeds is of no
value at all. There is really no analogy between the work of the human artificer and the
phenomena of Nature. The human artificer cannot work out his plan except by selecting and
isolating his materials from their natural relations and situations. Nature, however,
constitutes a system of wholly interdependent members; her processes present no analogy to
the architect’s work which, depending on a progressive isolation and integration of
its material, can offer no resemblance to the evolution of organic wholes in Nature. The
ontological argument which has been presented in various forms by various thinkers has
always appealed most to the speculative mind. The Cartesian form of the argument runs
thus:
‘To say that an attribute is
contained in the nature or in the concept of a thing is the same as to say that the
attribute is true of this thing and that it may be affirmed to be in it. But necessary
existence is contained in the nature or the concept of God. Hence it may be with truth
affirmed that necessary existence is in God, or that God exists.’¹
Descartes supplements this
argument by another. We have the idea of a perfect being in our mind. What is the source
of the idea? It cannot come from Nature, for Nature exhibits nothing but change. It cannot
create the idea of a perfect being. Therefore corresponding to the idea in our mind there
must be an objective counterpart which is the cause of the idea of a perfect being in our
mind. This argument is somewhat of the nature of the cosmological argument which I have
already criticized. But whatever may be the form of the argument, it is clear that the
conception of existence is no proof of objective existence. As in Kant’s criticism of
this argument the notion of three hundred dollars in my mind cannot prove that I have them
in my pocket.² All that the argument proves is that the idea of a perfect being
includes the idea of his existence. Between the idea of a perfect being in my mind and the
objective reality of that being there is a gulf which cannot be bridged over by a
transcendental act of thought. The argument, as stated, is in fact a petitio principii:³
for it takes for granted the very point in question, i.e. the transition from the logical
to the real. I hope I have made it clear to you that the ontological and the teleological
arguments, as ordinarily stated, carry us nowhere. And the reason of their failure is that
they look upon ‘thought’ as an agency working on things from without. This view
of thought gives us a mere mechanician in the one case, and creates an unbridgeable gulf
between the ideal and the real in the other. It is, however, possible to take thought not
as a principle which organizes and integrates its material from the outside, but as a
potency which is formative of the very being of its material. Thus regarded thought or
idea is not alien to the original nature of things; it is their ultimate ground and
constitutes the very essence of their being, infusing itself in them from the very
beginning of their career and inspiring their onward march to a self-determined end. But
our present situation necessitates the dualism of thought and being. Every act of human
knowledge bifurcates what might on proper inquiry turn out to be a unity into a self that
knows and a confronting ‘other’ that is known. That is why we are forced to
regard the object that confronts the self as something existing in its own right, external
to and independent of the self whose act of knowledge makes no difference to the object
known. The true significance of the ontological and the teleological arguments will appear
only if we are able to show that the human situation is not final and that thought and
being are ultimately one. This is possible only if we carefully examine and interpret
experience, following the clue furnished by the Qur’n which regards experience
within and without as symbolic of a reality described by it,⁴ as ‘the
First and the Last, the Visible and the Invisible’.⁵ This I propose to do
in the present lecture.
Now experience, as unfolding
itself in time, presents three main levels - the level of matter, the level of life, and
the level of mind and consciousness - the subject-matter of physics, biology, and
psychology, respectively. Let us first turn our attention to matter. In order exactly to
appreciate the position of modern physics it is necessary to understand clearly what we
mean by matter. Physics, as an empirical science, deals with the facts of experience, i.e.
sense-experience. The physicist begins and ends with sensible phenomena, without which it
is impossible for him to verify his theories. He may postulate imperceptible entities,
such as atoms; but he does so because he cannot otherwise explain his sense-experience.
Thus physics studies the material world, that is to say, the world revealed by the senses.
The mental processes involved in this study, and similarly religious and aesthetic
experience, though part of the total range of experience, are excluded from the scope of
physics for the obvious reason that physics is restricted to the study of the material
world, by which we mean the world of things we perceive. But when I ask you what are the
things you perceive in the material world, you will, of course, mention the familiar
things around you, e.g. earth, sky, mountains, chairs, tables, etc. When I further ask you
what exactly you perceive of these things, you will answer - their qualities. It is clear
that in answering such a question we are really putting an interpretation on the evidence
of our senses. The interpretation consists in making a distinction between the thing and
its qualities. This really amounts to a theory of matter, i.e. of the nature of
sense-data, their relation to the perceiving mind and their ultimate causes. The substance
of this theory is as follows:
‘The sense objects (colours,
sounds, etc.) are states of the perceiver’s mind, and as such excluded from nature
regarded as something objective. For this reason they cannot be in any proper sense
qualities of physical things. When I say "The sky is blue," it can only mean
that the sky produces a blue sensation in my mind, and not that the colour blue is a
quality found in the sky. As mental states they are impressions, that is to say, they are
effects produced in us. The cause of these effects is matter, or material things acting
through our sense organs, nerves, and brain on our mind. This physical cause acts by
contact or impact; hence it must possess the qualities of shape, size, solidity and
resistance.’⁶
It was the philosopher Berkeley
who first undertook to refute the theory of matter as the unknown cause of our sensations.⁷
In our own times Professor Whitehead - an eminent mathematician and scientist - has
conclusively shown that the traditional theory of materialism is wholly untenable. It is
obvious that, on the theory, colours, sounds, etc., are subjective states only, and form
no part of Nature. What enters the eye and the ear is not colour or sound, but invisible
ether waves and inaudible air waves. Nature is not what we know her to be; our perceptions
are illusions and cannot be regarded as genuine disclosures of Nature, which, according to
the theory, is bifurcated into mental impressions, on the one hand, and the unverifiable,
imperceptible entities producing these impressions, on the other. If physics constitutes a
really coherent and genuine knowledge of perceptively known objects, the traditional
theory of matter must be rejected for the obvious reason that it reduces the evidence of
our senses, on which alone the physicist, as observer and experimenter, must rely, to the
mere impressions of the observer’s mind. Between Nature and the observer of Nature,
the theory creates a gulf which he is compelled to bridge over by resorting to the
doubtful hypothesis of an imperceptible something, occupying an absolute space like a
thing in a receptacle and causing our sensation by some kind of impact. In the words of
Professor Whitehead, the theory reduces one-half of Nature to a ‘dream’ and the
other half to a ‘conjecture’.⁸ Thus physics, finding it necessary to
criticize its own foundations, has eventually found reason to break its own idol, and the
empirical attitude which appeared to necessitate scientific materialism has finally ended
in a revolt against matter. Since objects, then, are not subjective states caused by
something imperceptible called matter, they are genuine phenomena which constitute the
very substance of Nature and which we know as they are in Nature. But the concept of
matter has received the greatest blow from the hand of Einstein - another eminent
physicist, whose discoveries have laid the foundation of a far-reaching revolution in the
entire domain of human thought. ‘The theory of Relativity by merging time into
spacetime’, says Mr. Russell,
‘has damaged the traditional
notion of substance more than all the arguments of the philosophers. Matter, for common
sense, is something which persists in time and moves in space. But for modern
relativity-physics this view is no longer tenable. A piece of matter has become not a
persistent thing with varying states, but a system of inter-related events. The old
solidity is gone, and with it the characteristics that to the materialist made matter seem
more real than fleeting thoughts.’
According to Professor Whitehead,
therefore, Nature is not a static fact situated in an a-dynamic void, but a structure of
events possessing the character of a continuous creative flow which thought cuts up into
isolated immobilities out of whose mutual relations arise the concepts of space and time.
Thus we see how modern science utters its agreement with Berkeley’s criticism which
it once regarded as an attack on its very foundation. The scientific view of Nature as
pure materiality is associated with the Newtonian view of space as an absolute void in
which things are situated. This attitude of science has, no doubt, ensured its speedy
progress; but the bifurcation of a total experience into two opposite domains of mind and
matter has today forced it, in view of its own domestic difficulties, to consider the
problems which, in the beginning of its career, it completely ignored. The criticism of
the foundations of the mathematical sciences has fully disclosed that the hypothesis of a
pure materiality, an enduring stuff situated in an absolute space, is unworkable. Is space
an independent void in which things are situated and which would remain intact if all
things were withdrawn? The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno approached the problem of space
through the question of movement in space. His arguments for the unreality of movement are
well known to the students of philosophy, and ever since his days the problem has
persisted in the history of thought and received the keenest attention from successive
generations of thinkers. Two of these arguments may be noted here.⁹ Zeno, who
took space to be infinitely divisible, argued that movement in space is impossible. Before
the moving body can reach the point of its destination it must pass through half the space
intervening between the point of start and the point of destination; and before it can
pass through that half it must travel through the half of the half, and so on to infinity.
We cannot move from one point of space to another without passing through an infinite
number of points in the intervening space. But it is impossible to pass through an
infinity of points in a finite time. He further argued that the flying arrow does not
move, because at any time during the course of its flight it is at rest in some point of
space. Thus Zeno held that movement is only a deceptive appearance and that Reality is one
and immutable. The unreality of movement means the unreality of an independent space.
Muslim thinkers of the school of al-Ash‘ardid not believe in the infinite
divisibility of space and time. With them space, time, and motion are made up of points
and instants which cannot be further subdivided. Thus they proved the possibility of
movement on the assumption that infinitesimals do exist; for if there is a limit to the
divisibility of space and time, movement from one point of space to another point is
possible in a finite time.¹⁰ Ibn azm, however, rejected the Ash‘arite
notion of infinitesimals,¹¹ and modern mathematics has confirmed his view. The
Ash‘arite argument, therefore, cannot logically resolve the paradox of Zeno. Of
modern thinkers the French philosopher Bergson and the British mathematician Bertrand
Russell have tried to refute Zeno’s arguments from their respective standpoints. To
Bergson movement, as true change, is the fundamental Reality. The paradox of Zeno is due
to a wrong apprehension of space and time which are regarded by Bergson only as
intellectual views of movement. It is not possible to develop here the argument of Bergson
without a fuller treatment of the metaphysical concept of life on which the whole argument
is based.¹² Bertrand Russell’s argument proceeds on Cantor’s theory
of mathematical continuity¹³ which he looks upon as one of the most important
discoveries of modern mathematics.¹⁴ Zeno’s argument is obviously based on
the assumption that space and time consist of infinite number of points and instants. On
this assumption it is easy to argue that since between two points the moving body will be
out of place, motion is impossible, for there is no place for it to take place.
Cantor’s discovery shows that space and time are continuous. Between any two points
in space there is an infinite number of points, and in an infinite series no two points
are next to each other. The infinite divisibility of space and time means the compactness
of the points in the series; it does not mean that points are mutually isolated in the
sense of having a gap between one another. Russell’s answer to Zeno, then, is as
follows:
‘Zeno asks how can you go
from one position at one moment to the next position at the next moment without in the
transition being at no position at no moment? The answer is that there is no next position
to any position, no next moment to any moment because between any two there is always
another. If there were infinitesimals movement would be impossible, but there are none.
Zeno therefore is right in saying that the arrow is at rest at every moment of its flight,
wrong in inferring that therefore it does not move, for there is a one-one correspondence
in a movement between the infinite series of positions and the infinite series of
instants. According to this doctrine, then it is possible to affirm the reality of space,
time, and movement, and yet avoid the paradox in Zeno’s arguments.’¹⁵
Thus Bertrand Russell proves the
reality of movement on the basis of Cantor’s theory of continuity. The reality of
movement means the independent reality of space and the objectivity of Nature. But the
identity of continuity and the infinite divisibility of space is no solution of the
difficulty. Assuming that there is a one-one correspondence between the infinite
multiplicity of instants in a finite interval of time and an infinite multiplicity of
points in a finite portion of space, the difficulty arising from the divisibility remains
the same. The mathematical conception of continuity as infinite series applies not to
movement regarded as an act, but rather to the picture of movement as viewed from the
outside. The act of movement, i.e. movement as lived and not as thought, does not admit of
any divisibility. The flight of the arrow observed as a passage in space is divisible, but
its flight regarded as an act, apart from its realization in space, is one and incapable
of partition into a multiplicity. In partition lies its destruction.
With Einstein space is real, but
relative to the observer. He rejects the Newtonian concept of an absolute space. The
object observed is variable; it is relative to the observer; its mass, shape, and size
change as the observer’s position and speed change. Movement and rest, too, are
relative to the observer. There is, therefore, no such thing as a self-subsistent
materiality of classical physics. It is, however, necessary here to guard against a
misunderstanding. The use of the word ‘observer’ in this connexion has misled
Wildon Carr into the view that the theory of Relativity inevitably leads to Monadistic
Idealism. It is true that according to the theory the shapes, sizes, and durations of
phenomena are not absolute. But as Professor Nunn points out, the space-time frame does
not depend on the observer’s mind; it depends on the point of the material universe
to which his body is attached. In fact, the ‘observer’ can be easily replaced by
a recording apparatus.¹⁶ Personally, I believe that the ultimate character of
Reality is spiritual: but in order to avoid a widespread misunderstanding it is necessary
to point out that Einstein’s theory, which, as a scientific theory, deals only with
the structure of things, throws no light on the ultimate nature of things which possess
that structure. The philosophical value of the theory is twofold. First, it destroys, not
the objectivity of Nature, but the view of substance as simple location in space - a view
which led to materialism in Classical Physics. ‘Substance’ for modern
Relativity-Physics is not a persistent thing with variable states, but a system of
interrelated events. In Whitehead’s presentation of the theory the notion of
‘matter’ is entirely replaced by the notion of ‘organism’. Secondly,
the theory makes space dependent on matter. The universe, according to Einstein, is not a
kind of island in an infinite space; it is finite but boundless; beyond it there is no
empty space. In the absence of matter the universe would shrink to a point. Looking,
however, at the theory from the standpoint that I have taken in these lectures,
Einstein’s Relativity presents one great difficulty, i.e. the unreality of time. A
theory which takes time to be a kind of fourth dimension of space must, it seems, regard
the future as something already given, as indubitably fixed as the past.¹⁷ Time
as a free creative movement has no meaning for the theory. It does not pass. Events do not
happen; we simply meet them. It must not, however, be forgotten that the theory neglects
certain characteristics of time as experienced by us; and it is not possible to say that
the nature of time is exhausted by the characteristics which the theory does note in the
interests of a systematic account of those aspects of Nature which can be mathematically
treated. Nor is it possible for us laymen to understand what the real nature of
Einstein’s time is. It is obvious that Einstein’s time is not Bergson’s
pure duration. Nor can we regard it as serial time. Serial time is the essence of
causality as defined by Kant. The cause and its effect are mutually so related that the
former is chronologically prior to the latter, so that if the former is not, the latter
cannot be. If mathematical time is serial time, then on the basis of the theory it is
possible, by a careful choice of the velocities of the observer and the system in which a
given set of events is happening, to make the effect precede its cause.¹⁸ It
appears to me that time regarded as a fourth dimension of space really ceases to be time.
A modern Russian writer, Ouspensky, in his book called Tertium Organum, conceives the
fourth dimension to be the movement of a three-dimensional figure in a direction not
contained in itself.¹⁹ Just as the movement of the point, the line and the
surface in a direction not contained in them gives us the ordinary three dimensions of
space, in the same way the movement of the three-dimensional figure in a direction not
contained in itself must give us the fourth dimension of space. And since time is the
distance separating events in order of succession and binding them in different wholes, it
is obviously a distance lying in a direction not contained in the three-dimensional space.
As a new dimension this distance, separating events in the order of succession, is
incommensurable with the dimensions of three-dimensional space, as a year is
incommensurable with St. Petersburg. It is perpendicular to all directions of
three-dimensional space, and is not parallel to any of them. Elsewhere in the same book
Ouspensky describes our time-sense as a misty space-sense and argues, on the basis of our
psychic constitution, that to one-, two- or three-dimensional beings the higher dimension
must always appear as succession in time. This obviously means that what appears to us
three-dimensional beings as time is in reality an imperfectly sensed space-dimension which
in its own nature does not differ from the perfectly sensed dimensions of Euclidean space.
In other words, time is not a genuine creative movement; and that what we call future
events are not fresh happenings, but things already given and located in an unknown space.
Yet in his search for a fresh direction, other than the three Euclidean dimensions,
Ouspensky needs a real serial time, i.e. a distance separating events in the order of
succession. Thus time which was needed and consequently viewed as succession for the
purposes of one stage of the argument is quietly divested, at a later stage, of its serial
character and reduced to what does not differ in anything from the other lines and
dimensions of space. It is because of the serial character of time that Ouspensky was able
to regard it as a genuinely new direction in space. If this characteristic is in reality
an illusion, how can it fulfil Ouspensky’s requirements of an original dimension?
Passing now to other levels of
experience - life and consciousness. Consciousness may be imagined as a deflection from
life. Its function is to provide a luminous point in order to enlighten the forward rush
of life.²⁰ It is a case of tension, a state of self-concentration, by means of
which life manages to shut out all memories and associations which have no bearing on a
present action. It has no well-defined fringes; it shrinks and expands as the occasion
demands. To describe it as an epiphenomenon of the processes of matter is to deny it as an
independent activity, and to deny it as an independent activity is to deny the validity of
all knowledge which is only a systematized expression of consciousness. Thus consciousness
is a variety of the purely spiritual principle of life which is not a substance, but an
organizing principle, a specific mode of behaviour essentially different to the behaviour
of an externally worked machine. Since, however, we cannot conceive of a purely spiritual
energy, except in association with a definite combination of sensible elements through
which it reveals itself, we are apt to take this combination as the ultimate ground of
spiritual energy. The discoveries of Newton in the sphere of matter and those of Darwin in
the sphere of Natural History reveal a mechanism. All problems, it was believed, were
really the problems of physics. Energy and atoms, with the properties self-existing in
them, could explain everything including life, thought, will, and feeling. The concept of
mechanism - a purely physical concept - claimed to be the all-embracing explanation of
Nature. And the battle for and against mechanism is still being fiercely fought in the
domain of Biology. The question, then, is whether the passage to Reality through the
revelations of sense-perception necessarily leads to a view of Reality essentially opposed
to the view that religion takes of its ultimate character. Is Natural Science finally
committed to materialism? There is no doubt that the theories of science constitute
trustworthy knowledge, because they are verifiable and enable us to predict and control
the events of Nature. But we must not forget that what is called science is not a single
systematic view of Reality. It is a mass of sectional views of Reality - fragments of a
total experience which do not seem to fit together. Natural Science deals with matter,
with life, and with mind; but the moment you ask the question how matter, life, and mind
are mutually related, you begin to see the sectional character of the various sciences
that deal with them and the inability of these sciences, taken singly, to furnish a
complete answer to your question. In fact, the various natural sciences are like so many
vultures falling on the dead body of Nature, and each running away with a piece of its
flesh. Nature as the subject of science is a highly artificial affair, and this
artificiality is the result of that selective process to which science must subject her in
the interests of precision. The moment you put the subject of science in the total of
human experience it begins to disclose a different character. Thus religion, which demands
the whole of Reality and for this reason must occupy a central place in any synthesis of
all the data of human experience, has no reason to be afraid of any sectional views of
Reality. Natural Science is by nature sectional; it cannot, if it is true to its own
nature and function, set up its theory as a complete view of Reality. The concepts we use
in the organization of knowledge are, therefore, sectional in character, and their
application is relative to the level of experience to which they are applied. The concept
of ‘cause’, for instance, the essential feature of which is priority to the
effect, is relative to the subject-matter of physical science which studies one special
kind of activity to the exclusion of other forms of activity observed by others. When we
rise to the level of life and mind the concept of cause fails us, and we stand in need of
concepts of a different order of thought. The action of living organisms, initiated and
planned in view of an end, is totally different to causal action. The subject-matter of
our inquiry, therefore, demands the concepts of ‘end’ and ‘purpose’,
which act from within unlike the concept of cause which is external to the effect and acts
from without. No doubt, there are aspects of the activity of a living organism which it
shares with other objects of Nature. In the observation of these aspects the concepts of
physics and chemistry would be needed; but the behaviour of the organism is essentially a
matter of inheritance and incapable of sufficient explanation in terms of molecular
physics. However, the concept of mechanism has been applied to life and we have to see how
far the attempt has succeeded. Unfortunately, I am not a biologist and must turn to
biologists themselves for support. After telling us that the main difference between a
living organism and a machine is that the former is self-maintaining and self-reproducing,
J.S. Haldane says:
‘It is thus evident that
although we find within the living body many phenomena which, so long as we do not look
closely, can be interpreted satisfactorily as physical and chemical mechanism, there are
side by side other phenomena [i.e. self-maintenance and reproduction] for which the
possibility of such interpretation seems to be absent. The mechanists assume that the
bodily mechanisms are so constructed as to maintain, repair, and reproduce themselves. In
the long process of natural selection, mechanisms of this sort have, they suggest, been
evolved gradually.
‘Let us examine this
hypothesis. When we state an event in mechanical terms we state it as a necessary result
of certain simple properties of separate parts which interact in the event. . . . The
essence of the explanation or re-statement of the event is that after due investigation we
have assumed that the parts interacting in the event have certain simple and definite
properties, so that they always react in the same way under the same conditions. For a
mechanical explanation the reacting parts must first be given. Unless an arrangement of
parts with definite properties is given, it is meaningless to speak of mechanical
explanation.
‘To postulate the existence
of a self-producing or self-maintaining mechanism is, thus, to postulate something to
which no meaning can be attached. Meaningless terms are sometimes used by physiologists;
but there is none so absolutely meaningless as the expression "mechanism of
reproduction". Any mechanism there may be in the parent organism is absent in the
process of reproduction, and must reconstitute itself at each generation, since the parent
organism is reproduced from a mere tiny speck of its own body. There can be no mechanism
of reproduction. The idea of a mechanism which is constantly maintaining or reproducing
its own structure is self-contradictory. A mechanism which reproduced itself would be a
mechanism without parts, and, therefore, not a mechanism.’²¹
Life is, then, a unique
phenomenon and the concept of mechanism is inadequate for its analysis. Its ‘factual
wholeness’, to use an expression of Driesch - another notable biologist - is a kind
of unity which, looked at from another point of view, is also a plurality. In all the
purposive processes of growth and adaptation to its environment, whether this adaptation
is secured by the formation of fresh or the modification of old habits, it possesses a
career which is unthinkable in the case of a machine. And the possession of a career means
that the sources of its activity cannot be explained except in reference to a remote past,
the origin of which, therefore, must be sought in a spiritual reality revealable in, but
non-discoverable by, any analysis of spatial experience. It would, therefore, seem that
life is foundational and anterior to the routine of physical and chemical processes which
must be regarded as a kind of fixed behaviour formed during a long course of evolution.
Further, the application of the mechanistic concepts to life, necessitating the view that
the intellect itself is a product of evolution, brings science into conflict with its own
objective principle of investigation. On this point I will quote a passage from Wildon
Carr, who has given a very pointed expression to this conflict:
‘If intellect is a product
of evolution the whole mechanistic concept of the nature and origin of life is absurd, and
the principle which science has adopted must clearly be revised. We have only to state it
to see the self-contradiction. How can the intellect, a mode of apprehending reality, be
itself an evolution of something which only exists as an abstraction of that mode of
apprehending, which is the intellect? If intellect is an evolution of life, then the
concept of the life which can evolve intellect as a particular mode of apprehending
reality must be the concept of a more concrete activity than that of any abstract
mechanical movement which the intellect can present to itself by analysing its apprehended
content. And yet further, if the intellect be a product of the evolution of life, it is
not absolute but relative to the activity of the life which has evolved it; how then, in
such case, can science exclude the subjective aspect of the knowing and build on the
objective presentation as an absolute? Clearly the biological sciences necessitate a
reconsideration of the scientific principle.’²²
I will now try to reach the
primacy of life and thought by another route, and carry you a step farther in our
examination of experience. This will throw some further light on the primacy of life and
will also give us an insight into the nature of life as a psychic activity. We have seen
that Professor Whitehead describes the universe, not as something static, but as a
structure of events possessing the character of a continuous creative flow. This quality
of Nature’s passage in time is perhaps the most significant aspect of experience
which the Qur’n especially emphasizes and which, as I hope to be able to show in
the sequel, offers the best clue to the ultimate nature of Reality. To some of the verses
(3:190-91; 2:164; 24:44)²³ bearing on the point I have already drawn your
attention. In view of the great importance of the subject I will add here a few more:
‘Verily, in the alternations
of night and of day and in all that God hath created in the Heavens and in the earth are
signs to those who fear Him’ (10:6).
‘And it is He Who hath
ordained the night and the day to succeed one another for those who desire to think on God
or desire to be thankful’ (25:62).
‘Seest though not that God
causeth the night to come in upon the day, and the day to come in upon the night; and that
He hath subjected the sun and the moon to laws by which each speedeth along to an
appointed goal?’ (31:29).
‘It is of Him that the night
returneth on the day, and that the day returneth on the night’ (39:5).
‘And of Him is the change of
the night and of the day’ (23:80).
There is another set of verses
which, indicating the relativity of our reckoning of time, suggests the possibility of
unknown levels of consciousness;²⁴ but I will content myself with a discussion
of the familiar, yet deeply significant, aspect of experience alluded to in the verses
quoted above. Among the representatives of contemporary thought Bergson is the only
thinker who has made a keen study of the phenomenon of duration in time. I will first
briefly explain to you his view of duration and then point out the inadequacy of his
analysis in order fully to bring out the implications of a completer view of the temporal
aspect of existence. The ontological problem before us is how to define the ultimate
nature of existence. That the universe persists in time is not open to doubt. Yet, since
it is external to us, it is possible to be sceptical about its existence. In order
completely to grasp the meaning of this persistence in time we must be in a position to
study some privileged case of existence which is absolutely unquestionable and gives us
the further assurance of a direct vision of duration. Now my perception of things that
confront me is superficial and external; but my perception of my own self is internal,
intimate, and profound. It follows, therefore, that conscious experience is that
privileged case of existence in which we are in absolute contact with Reality, and an
analysis of this privileged case is likely to throw a flood of light on the ultimate
meaning of existence. What do I find when I fix my gaze on my own conscious experience? In
the words of Bergson:
‘I pass from state to state.
I am warm or cold. I am merry or sad, I work or I do nothing, I look at what is around me
or I think of something else. Sensations, feelings, volitions, ideas - such are the
changes into which my existence is divided and which colour it in turns. I change then,
without ceasing.’²⁵
Thus, there is nothing static in
my inner life; all is a constant mobility, an unceasing flux of states, a perpetual flow
in which there is no halt or resting place. Constant change, however, is unthinkable
without time. On the analogy of our inner experience, then, conscious existence means life
in time. A keener insight into the nature of conscious experience, however, reveals that
the self in its inner life moves from the centre outwards. It has, so to speak, two sides
which may be described as appreciative and efficient. On its efficient side it enters into
relation with what we call the world of space. The efficient self is the subject of
associationist psychology - the practical self of daily life in its dealing with the
external order of things which determine our passing states of consciousness and stamp on
these states their own spatial feature of mutual isolation. The self here lives outside
itself as it were, and, while retaining its unity as a totality, discloses itself as
nothing more than a series of specific and consequently numberable states. The time in
which the efficient self lives is, therefore, the time of which we predicate long and
short. It is hardly distinguishable from space. We can conceive it only as a straight line
composed of spatial points which are external to one another like so many stages in a
journey. But time thus regarded is not true time, according to Bergson. Existence in
spatialized time is spurious existence. A deeper analysis of conscious experience reveals
to us what I have called the appreciative side of the self. With our absorption in the
external order of things, necessitated by our present situation, it is extremely difficult
to catch a glimpse of the appreciative self. In our constant pursuit after external things
we weave a kind of veil round the appreciative self which thus becomes completely alien to
us. It is only in the moments of profound meditation, when the efficient self is in
abeyance, that we sink into our deeper self and reach the inner centre of experience. In
the life-process of this deeper ego the states of consciousness melt into each other. The
unity of the appreciative ego is like the unity of the germ in which the experiences of
its individual ancestors exist, not as a plurality, but as a unity in which every
experience permeates the whole. There is no numerical distinctness of states in the
totality of the ego, the multiplicity of whose elements is, unlike that of the efficient
self, wholly qualitative. There is change and movement, but change and movement are
indivisible; their elements interpenetrate and are wholly non-serial in character. It
appears that the time of the appreciative-self is a single ‘now’ which the
efficient self, in its traffic with the world of space, pulverizes into a series of
‘nows’ like pearl beads in a thread. Here is, then, pure duration unadulterated
by space. The Qur’n with its characteristic simplicity alludes to the serial and
non-serial aspects of duration in the following verses:
‘And put thou thy trust in
Him that liveth and dieth not, and celebrate His praise Who in six days created the
Heavens and the earth, and what is between them, then mounted His Throne; the God of
mercy’ (25:58-59).
‘All things We have created
with a fixed destiny: Our command was but one, swift as the twinkling of an eye’
(54:49-50).
If we look at the movement
embodied in creation from the outside, that is to say, if we apprehend it intellectually,
it is a process lasting through thousands of years; for one Divine day, in the terminology
of the Qur’n, as of the Old Testament, is equal to one thousand years.²⁶
From another point of view, the process of creation, lasting through thousands of years,
is a single indivisible act, ‘swift as the twinkling of an eye’. It is, however,
impossible to express this inner experience of pure duration in words, for language is
shaped on the serial time of our daily efficient self. Perhaps an illustration will
further elucidate the point. According to physical science, the cause of your sensation of
red is the rapidity of wave motion the frequency of which is 400 billions per second. If
you could observe this tremendous frequency from the outside, and count it at the rate of
2,000 per second, which is supposed to be the limit of the perceptibility of light, it
will take you more than six thousand years to finish the enumeration.²⁷ Yet in
the single momentary mental act of perception you hold together a frequency of wave motion
which is practically incalculable. That is how the mental act transforms succession into
duration. The appreciative self, then, is more or less corrective of the efficient self,
inasmuch as it synthesizes all the ‘heres’ and ‘nows’ - the small
changes of space and time, indispensable to the efficient self - into the coherent
wholeness of personality. Pure time, then, as revealed by a deeper analysis of our
conscious experience, is not a string of separate, reversible instants; it is an organic
whole in which the past is not left behind, but is moving along with, and operating in,
the present. And the future is given to it not as lying before, yet to be traversed; it is
given only in the sense that it is present in its nature as an open possibility.²⁸
It is time regarded as an organic whole that the Qur’n describes as Taqdr
or the destiny - a word which has been so much misunderstood both in and outside the world
of Islam. Destiny is time regarded as prior to the disclosure of its possibilities. It is
time freed from the net of causal sequence - the diagrammatic character which the logical
understanding imposes on it. In one word, it is time as felt and not as thought and
calculated. If you ask me why the Emperor Humayn and Shh Tahmsp of Persia were
contemporaries, I can give you no causal explanation. The only answer that can possibly be
given is that the nature of Reality is such that among its infinite possibilities of
becoming, the two possibilities known as the lives of Humyn and Shh Tahmsp should
realize themselves together. Time regarded as destiny forms the very essence of things. As
the Qur’n says: ‘God created all things and assigned to each its
destiny.’²⁹ The destiny of a thing then is not an unrelenting fate working
from without like a task master; it is the inward reach of a thing, its realizable
possibilities which lie within the depths of its nature, and serially actualize themselves
without any feeling of external compulsion. Thus the organic wholeness of duration does
not mean that full-fledged events are lying, as it were, in the womb of Reality, and drop
one by one like the grains of sand from the hour-glass. If time is real, and not a mere
repetition of homogeneous moments which make conscious experience a delusion, then every
moment in the life of Reality is original, giving birth to what is absolutely novel and
unforeseeable. ‘Everyday doth some new work employ Him’,³⁰ says the
Qur’n. To exist in real time is not to be bound by the fetters of serial time, but
to create it from moment to moment and to be absolutely free and original in creation. In
fact, all creative activity is free activity. Creation is opposed to repetition which is a
characteristic of mechanical action. That is why it is impossible to explain the creative
activity of life in terms of mechanism. Science seeks to establish uniformities of
experience, i.e. the laws of mechanical repetition. Life with its intense feeling of
spontaneity constitutes a centre of indetermination, and thus falls outside the domain of
necessity. Hence science cannot comprehend life. The biologist who seeks a mechanical
explanation of life is led to do so because he confines his study to the lower forms of
life whose behaviour discloses resemblances to mechanical action. If he studies life as
manifested in himself, i.e. his own mind freely choosing, rejecting, reflecting, surveying
the past and the present, and dynamically imagining the future, he is sure to be convinced
of the inadequacy of his mechanical concepts.
On the analogy of our conscious
experience, then, the universe is a free creative movement. But how can we conceive a
movement independent of a concrete thing that moves? The answer is that the notion of
‘things’ is derivative. We can derive ‘things’ from movement; we
cannot derive movement from immobile things. If, for instance, we suppose material atoms,
such as the atoms of Democritus, to be the original Reality, we must import movement into
them from the outside as something alien to their nature. Whereas if we take movement as
original, static things may be derived from it. In fact, physical science has reduced all
things to movement. The essential nature of the atom in modern science is electricity and
not something electrified. Apart from this, things are not given in immediate experience
as things already possessing definite contours, for immediate experience is a continuity
without any distinctions in it. What we call things are events in the continuity of Nature
which thought spatializes and thus regards as mutually isolated for purposes of action.
The universe which seems to us to be a collection of things is not a solid stuff occupying
a void. It is not a thing but an act. The nature of thought according to Bergson is
serial; it cannot deal with movement, except by viewing it as a series of stationary
points. It is, therefore, the operation of thought, working with static concepts, that
gives the appearance of a series of immobilities to what is essentially dynamic in its
nature. The co-existence and succession of these immobilities is the source of what we
call space and time.
According to Bergson, then,
Reality is a free unpredictable, creative, vital impetus of the nature of volition which
thought spatializes and views as a plurality of ‘things’. A full criticism of
this view cannot be undertaken here. Suffice it to say that the vitalism of Bergson ends
in an insurmountable dualism of will and thought. This is really due to the partial view
of intelligence that he takes. Intelligence, according to him, is a spatializing activity;
it is shaped on matter alone, and has only mechanical categories at its disposal. But, as
I pointed out in my first lecture, thought has a deeper movement also.³¹ While
it appears to break up Reality into static fragments, its real function is to synthesize
the elements of experience by employing categories suitable to the various levels which
experience presents. It is as much organic as life. The movement of life, as an organic
growth, involves a progressive synthesis of its various stages. Without this synthesis it
will cease to be organic growth. It is determined by ends, and the presence of ends means
that it is permeated by intelligence. Nor is the activity of intelligence possible without
the presence of ends. In conscious experience life and thought permeate each other. They
form a unity. Thought, therefore, in its true nature, is identical with life. Again, in
Bergson’s view the forward rush of the vital impulse in its creative freedom is
unilluminated by the light of an immediate or a remote purpose. It is not aiming at a
result; it is wholly arbitrary, undirected, chaotic, and unforeseeable in its behaviour.
It is mainly here that Bergson’s analysis of our conscious experience reveals its
inadequacy. He regards conscious experience as the past moving along with and operating in
the present. He ignores that the unity of consciousness has a forward looking aspect also.
Life is only a series of acts of attention, and an act of attention is inexplicable
without reference to a purpose, conscious or unconscious. Even our acts of perception are
determined by our immediate interests and purposes. The Persian poet ‘urf’ has
given a beautiful expression to this aspect of human perception. He says:³²

‘If your heart is not
deceived by the mirage, be not proud of the sharpness of your understanding;

for your freedom from this optical illusion is due to your imperfect thirst.’
The poet means to say that if you
had a vehement desire for drink, the sands of the desert would have given you the
impression of a lake. Your freedom from the illusion is due to the absence of a keen
desire for water. You have perceived the thing as it is because you were not interested in
perceiving it as it is not. Thus ends and purposes, whether they exist as conscious or
subconscious tendencies, form the warp and woof of our conscious experience. And the
notion of purpose cannot be understood except in reference to the future. The past, no
doubt, abides and operates in the present; but this operation of the past in the present
is not the whole of consciousness. The element of purpose discloses a kind of forward look
in consciousness. Purposes not only colour our present states of consciousness, but also
reveal its future direction. In fact, they constitute the forward push of our life, and
thus in a way anticipate and influence the states that are yet to be. To be determined by
an end is to be determined by what ought to be. Thus past and future both operate in the
present state of consciousness, and the future is not wholly undetermined as
Bergson’s analysis of our conscious experience shows. A state of attentive
consciousness involves both memory and imagination as operating factors. On the analogy of
our conscious experience, therefore, Reality is not a blind vital impulse wholly
unilluminated by idea. Its nature is through and through teleological.
Bergson, however, denies the
teleological character of Reality on the ground that teleology makes time unreal.
According to him ‘the portals of the future must remain wide open to Reality’.
Otherwise, it will not be free and creative. No doubt, if teleology means the working out
of a plan in view of a predetermined end or goal, it does make time unreal. It reduces the
universe to a mere temporal reproduction of a pre-existing eternal scheme or structure in
which individual events have already found their proper places, waiting, as it were, for
their respective turns to enter into the temporal sweep of history. All is already given
somewhere in eternity; the temporal order of events is nothing more than a mere imitation
of the eternal mould. Such a view is hardly distinguishable from mechanism which we have
already rejected.³³ In fact, it is a kind of veiled materialism in which fate
or destiny takes the place of rigid determinism, leaving no scope for human or even Divine
freedom. The world regarded as a process realizing a preordained goal is not a world of
free, responsible moral agents; it is only a stage on which puppets are made to move by a
kind of pull from behind. There is, however, another sense of teleology. From our
conscious experience we have seen that to live is to shape and change ends and purposes
and to be governed by them. Mental life is teleological in the sense that, while there is
no far-off distant goal towards which we are moving, there is a progressive formation of
fresh ends, purposes, and ideal scales of value as the process of life grows and expands.
We become by ceasing to be what we are. Life is a passage through a series of deaths. But
there is a system in the continuity of this passage. Its various stages, in spite of the
apparently abrupt changes in our evaluation of things, are organically related to one
another. The life-history of the individual is, on the whole, a unity and not a mere
series of mutually ill-adapted events. The world-process, or the movement of the universe
in time, is certainly devoid of purpose, if by purpose we mean a foreseen end - a far-off
fixed destination to which the whole creation moves. To endow the world-process with
purpose in this sense is to rob it of its originality and its creative character. Its ends
are terminations of a career; they are ends to come and not necessarily premeditated. A
time-process cannot be conceived as a line already drawn. It is a line in the drawing - an
actualization of open possibilities. It is purposive only in this sense that it is
selective in character, and brings itself to some sort of a present fulfilment by actively
preserving and supplementing the past. To my mind nothing is more alien to the Quranic
outlook than the idea that the universe is the temporal working out of a preconceived
plan. As I have already pointed out, the universe, according to the Qur’n, is
liable to increase.³⁴ It is a growing universe and not an already completed
product which left the hand of its maker ages ago, and is now lying stretched in space as
a dead mass of matter to which time does nothing, and consequently is nothing.
We are now, I hope, in a position
to see the meaning of the verse - ‘And it is He Who hath ordained the night and the
day to succeed one another for those who desire to think on God or desire to be
thankful.’³⁵ A critical interpretation of the sequence of time as revealed
in ourselves has led us to a notion of the Ultimate Reality as pure duration in which
thought, life, and purpose interpenetrate to form an organic unity. We cannot conceive
this unity except as the unity of a self - an all-embracing concrete self - the ultimate
source of all individual life and thought. I venture to think that the error of Bergson
consists in regarding pure time as prior to self, to which alone pure duration is
predicable. Neither pure space nor pure time can hold together the multiplicity of objects
and events. It is the appreciative act of an enduring self only which can seize the
multiplicity of duration - broken up into an infinity of instants - and transform it to
the organic wholeness of a synthesis. To exist in pure duration is to be a self, and to be
a self is to be able to say ‘I am’. Only that truly exists which can say ‘I
am’. It is the degree of the intuition of ‘I-amness’ that determines the
place of a thing in the scale of being. We too say ‘I am’. But our
‘I-amness’ is dependent and arises out of the distinction between the self and
the not-self. The Ultimate Self, in the words of the Qur’n, ‘can afford to
dispense with all the worlds’.³⁶ To Him the not-self does not present
itself as a confronting ‘other’, or else it would have to be, like our finite
self, in spatial relation with the confronting ‘other’. What we call Nature or
the not-self is only a fleeting moment in the life of God. His ‘I-amness’ is
independent, elemental, absolute.³⁷ Of such a self it is impossible for us to
form an adequate conception. As the Qur’n says, ‘Naught’ is like Him; yet
‘He hears and sees’.³⁸ Now a self is unthinkable without a character,
i.e. a uniform mode of behaviour. Nature, as we have seen, is not a mass of pure
materiality occupying a void. It is a structure of events, a systematic mode of behaviour,
and as such organic to the Ultimate Self. Nature is to the Divine Self as character is to
the human self. In the picturesque phrase of the Qur’n it is the habit of Allah.³⁹
From the human point of view it is an interpretation which, in our present situation, we
put on the creative activity of the Absolute Ego. At a particular moment in its forward
movement it is finite; but since the self to which it is organic is creative, it is liable
to increase, and is consequently boundless in the sense that no limit to its extension is
final. Its boundlessness is potential, not actual. Nature, then, must be understood as a
living, ever-growing organism whose growth has no final external limits. Its only limit is
internal, i.e. the immanent self which animates and sustains the whole. As the
Qur’n says: ‘And verily unto thy Lord is the limit’ (53:42). Thus the
view that we have taken gives a fresh spiritual meaning to physical science. The knowledge
of Nature is the knowledge of God’s behaviour. In our observation of Nature we are
virtually seeking a kind of intimacy with the Absolute Ego; and this is only another form
of worship.⁴⁰
The above discussion takes time
as an essential element in the Ultimate Reality. The next point before us, therefore, is
to consider the late Doctor McTaggart’s argument relating to the unreality of time.⁴¹
Time, according to Doctor McTaggart, is unreal because every event is past, present, and
future. Queen Anne’s death, for instance, is past to us; it was present to her
contemporaries and future to William III. Thus the event of Anne’s death combines
characteristics which are incompatible with each other. It is obvious that the argument
proceeds on the assumption that the serial nature of time is final. If we regard past,
present, and future as essential to time, then we picture time as a straight line, part of
which we have travelled and left behind, and part lies yet untravelled before us. This is
taking time, not as a living creative moment, but as a static absolute, holding the
ordered multiplicity of fully-shaped cosmic events, revealed serially, like the pictures
of a film, to the outside observer. We can indeed say that Queen Anne’s death was
future to William III, if this event is regarded as already fully shaped, and lying in the
future, waiting for its happening. But a future event, as Broad justly points out, cannot
be characterized as an event.⁴² Before the death of Anne the event of her death
did not exist at all. During Anne’s life the event of her death existed only as an
unrealized possibility in the nature of Reality which included it as an event only when,
in the course of its becoming, it reached the point of the actual happening of that event.
The answer to Doctor McTaggart’s argument is that the future exists only as an open
possibility, and not as a reality. Nor can it be said that an event combines incompatible
characteristics when it is described both as past and present. When an event X does happen
it enters into an unalterable relation with all the events that have happened before it.
These relations are not at all affected by the relations of X with other events which
happen after X by the further becoming of Reality. No true or false proposition about
these relations will ever become false or true. Hence there is no logical difficulty in
regarding an event as both past and present. It must be confessed, however, that the point
is not free from difficulty and requires much further thinking. It is not easy to solve
the mystery of time.⁴³ Augustine’s profound words are as true today as
they were when they were uttered: ‘If no one questions me of time, I know it: if I
would explain to a questioner I know it not.’⁴⁴ Personally, I am inclined
to think that time is an essential element in Reality. But real time is not serial time to
which the distinction of past, present, and future is essential; it is pure duration, i.e.
change without succession, which McTaggart’s argument does not touch. Serial time is
pure duration pulverized by thought - a kind of device by which Reality exposes its
ceaseless creative activity to quantitative measurement. It is in this sense that the
Qur’n says: ‘And of Him is the change of the night and of the day.’⁴⁵
But the question you are likely
to ask is - ‘Can change be predicated of the Ultimate Ego?’ We, as human beings,
are functionally related to an independent world-process. The conditions of our life are
mainly external to us. The only kind of life known to us is desire, pursuit, failure, or
attainment - a continuous change from one situation to another. From our point of view
life is change, and change is essentially imperfection. At the same time, since our
conscious experience is the only point of departure for all knowledge, we cannot avoid the
limitation of interpreting facts in the light of our own inner experience. An
anthropomorphic conception is especially unavoidable in the apprehension of life; for life
can be apprehended from within only. As the poet Nsir ‘Al of Sirhind imagines the
idol saying to the Brahmin:

‘Thou hast made me after
Thine own image! After all what hast Thou seen beyond Thyself?’⁴⁶
It was the fear of conceiving
Divine life after the image of human life that the Spanish Muslim theologian Ibn azm
hesitated to predicate life of God, and ingeniously suggested that God should be described
as living, not because He is living in the sense of our experience of life, but only
because He is so described in the Qur’n.⁴⁷ Confining himself to the
surface of our conscious experience and ignoring its deeper phases, Ibn azm must have
taken life as a serial change, a succession of attitudes towards an obstructing
environment. Serial change is obviously a mark of imperfection; and, if we confine
ourselves to this view of change, the difficulty of reconciling Divine perfection with
Divine life becomes insuperable. Ibn azm must have felt that the perfection of God can
be retained only at the cost of His life. There is, however, a way out of the difficulty.
The Absolute Ego, as we have seen, is the whole of Reality. He is not so situated as to
take a perspective view of an alien universe; consequently, the phases of His life are
wholly determined from within. Change, therefore, in the sense of a movement from an
imperfect to a relatively perfect state, or vice versa, is obviously inapplicable to His
life. But change in this sense is not the only possible form of life. A deeper insight
into our conscious experience shows that beneath the appearance of serial duration there
is true duration. The Ultimate Ego exists in pure duration wherein change ceases to be a
succession of varying attitudes, and reveals its true character as continuous creation,
‘untouched by weariness’⁴⁸ and unseizable ‘by slumber or
sleep’.⁴⁹ To conceive the Ultimate Ego as changeless in this sense of
change is to conceive Him as utter inaction, a motiveless, stagnant neutrality, an
absolute nothing. To the Creative Self change cannot mean imperfection. The perfection of
the Creative Self consists, not in a mechanistically conceived immobility, as Aristotle
might have led Ibn azm to think. It consists in the vaster basis of His creative
activity and the infinite scope of His creative vision. God’s life is
self-revelation, not the pursuit of an ideal to be reached. The ‘not-yet’ of man
does mean pursuit and may mean failure; the ‘not-yet’ of God means unfailing
realization of the infinite creative possibilities of His being which retains its
wholeness throughout the entire process.
In the Endless, self-repeating

flows for evermore The Same.

Myriad arches, springing, meeting,

hold at rest the mighty frame.

Streams from all things love of living,

grandest star and humblest clod.

All the straining, all the striving

is eternal peace in God.⁵⁰ (GOETHE)
Thus a comprehensive
philosophical criticism of all the facts of experience on its efficient as well as
appreciative side brings us to the conclusion that the Ultimate Reality is a rationally
directed creative life. To interpret this life as an ego is not to fashion God after the
image of man. It is only to accept the simple fact of experience that life is not a
formless fluid, but an organizing principle of unity, a synthetic activity which holds
together and focalizes the dispersing dispositions of the living organism for a
constructive purpose. The operation of thought which is essentially symbolic in character
veils the true nature of life, and can picture it only as a kind of universal current
flowing through all things. The result of an intellectual view of life, therefore, is
necessarily pantheistic. But we have a first-hand knowledge of the appreciative aspect of
life from within. Intuition reveals life as a centralizing ego. This knowledge, however
imperfect as giving us only a point of departure, is a direct revelation of the ultimate
nature of Reality. Thus the facts of experience justify the inference that the ultimate
nature of Reality is spiritual, and must be conceived as an ego. But the aspiration of
religion soars higher than that of philosophy. Philosophy is an intellectual view of
things; and, as such, does not care to go beyond a concept which can reduce all the rich
variety of experience to a system. It sees Reality from a distance as it were. Religion
seeks a closer contact with Reality. The one is theory; the other is living experience,
association, intimacy. In order to achieve this intimacy thought must rise higher than
itself, and find its fulfilment in an attitude of mind which religion describes as prayer
- one of the last words on the lips of the Prophet of Islam.⁵¹