2.Ilm al‑qira'ah; dealing with words, their syllabication and composition and the techniques of recitation.
3. Ilm al‑tafsir, dealing with the meanings of words, the historical circumstances of the revelation of verses (asbab al‑nuzul), etc. Discussions regarding nasikh and mansukh, and muhkam and mutashabih also relate to ilm al‑tafsir. Researchers in Qur'anic sciences have compiled various books and treatises in this field. However, for reasons of space, we shall refrain from mentioning them here.
The temporal aspect of the Qur'an's revelation, too, has received attention among the topics of discussion pertaining to Qur'anic studies. However, it is difficult to visualize any effect of the aforesaid topic on the process of legal inference from the Qur'an.
Some are of the opinion that the Qur'an was revealed all at once and completely, although the Holy Prophet recited the same in parts in different contexts. Some others believe that the Qur'an was gradually revealed over a period of time, and its revelation, being in the temporal order of its communication, was also gradual.
Some of the verses, like those of the Surat al‑Qadr, apparently confirm the first view, and some others, like verse 106 of Surat al‑'Isra; are compatible with the theory of gradual revelation. Be that as it may, this question does not significantly affect ijtihad and the understanding of the Qur'an, for it is an established fact that the Prophet (S) conveyed the Qur'anic verses at different times and on various occasions and recited them to the Muslims at Makkah and Madinah over a period of time. The time, place and circumstances of revelation, however, do help in the process of understanding the Qur'in. But the question as to whether or not the verses were revealed at one time and completely or gradually and in parts does not make any difference. Accordingly, we refrain from further discussion in this regard.
The division of the Qur'anic vers6s into Makki and Madani is also a topic of discussion in the Qur'anic studies. It does considerably affect the understanding of the Qur'an and the Lawgiver's intent, and consequently the deduction of ahkam. Experts and researchers have considered twenty of the Qur'anic surahs as Madani. Opinions differ in respect of twelve surahs and the remaining surahs have been reckoned as Makki.
Some investigators have sought for the distinctive characteristics of Makki and Madani surahs. A close study of these qualities will indicate the historical order of the exposition of different ethical, spiritual, doctrinal and ritual issues. Al‑Allamah al‑Suyuti has specified some special features of Makki surahs, as follows:
1. The Makki surahs contain verses that mention sajdah (prostration).
2. The name 'Makkah' occurs in some of them.
3. The phrase O people,' is used therein to address the Muslims in general.
4. The stories of the prophets and of past peoples, as well as the episode of Iblis (with the exception of Surat al‑Baqarah), are narrated therein.
5. The surahs begin with what are called al‑huruf al‑muqattaah such as etc.
The presence of these characteristics indicates that a surah is Makkan. There are, of course, other characteristics of Makkan surahs that have been pointed out, such as the shortness of the surahs and verses, powerful phrases and expressions, reference to doctrinal issues, the recurring oaths, arguments addressed to the idolaters and so on. But these characteristics are not generally applicable, though they may be of assistance to the researcher in pursuit of a more definite viewpoint.
Another subject relevant to the study of the Qur'an and legal deduction is the difference of readings. There are three matters that need to be studied in this regard.
(a) The reasons for the emergence of the various readings.
(b) The identification of reliable and more common readings, both from Sunni and Imami viewpoints.
(c) The effect of the difference of readings on the understanding of the verses and the Lawgiver's intent and, as a result, on the deduction of ahkam.
a. The Reason Behind Variant Readings:
At the outset when the Qur'an was collected and compiled, the scribes and copyists wrote the text without using any diacritical points or marks. They relied on their familiarity with the text for correct reading. However, with the passage of time the readers of the Qur'an faced difficulties in this respect and they came to read and understand the verses in ways that differed slightly from one another.
The emergence of this difference compelled some experts on the recitation of the Qur'an to take steps to specify the correct manner of reading. Seven of such experts came to acquire fame. They were:
1. Ibn Amir: Abu Imran Abd Allah ibn Amir al‑Dimashqi (8‑118/6269‑736) was the expert of qira'ah among the people of Syria. It is commonly said of him that he had learnt it under al Mughirah ibn Abi Shihab.
2. Ibn Kathir al‑Makki: Abd Allah ibn Kathir ibn Abd Allah ibn Zadan ibn Firuzan ibn Hurmuz (45‑120/664‑737). According to a tradition, he had learnt qira'ah from Abd Allah ibn Sa'ib al‑Makhzumi. But that which is widely known is that he learnt it from Mujahid.
3. Asim al‑Kufi: Abu Baler Aim ibn Abi al‑Najud al‑'Asadi (d. 127 or 128/745 or 746), according to various narrations that have come down from him, had learnt qira'ah from Abu Abd al‑Rahman alSalami, who had learnt it from 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (A).
4. Abu Amr al‑Basri: Zabban ibn Ala' ibn Amman al‑Mazini (68r‑154/687‑770) was from Basrah and was an Iranian according to one tradition. He had learnt qira'ah in Makkah, Madinah, Kufah and Basrah. He was the most eminent qari of his period.
5. Hamzah al‑Kufi: Abu Ammar Hamzah ibn Habib ibn Umarah ibn Isma'il (80‑156/699‑772) belonged to the tribe of Tamim and was a Kufan. According to the author of al Kifayat al‑kubra wa al‑taysir, he had learnt qira'ah from Muhammad ibn Abd al‑Rahman and Talhah ibn Mu'arrif. According to the book al Mustanir, he had learnt it from al 'Imam al‑Sadiq (A).
According to other traditions he had learnt it from al‑Mughirah ibn Muqsim, al‑Mansur, Layth ibn Abi Sulaym, Sulayman ibn al‑'A'mash, and Humran ibn A'yan.
6. Nafil al‑Madani: Nafi' ibn Abd al‑Rahman ibn Abi Nu'aym (d. 169/785), an Iranian from Isfahan, had learnt qira'ah from the tabi'i scholars of Madinah.
7. Al‑Kisa'i: Abu al‑Hasan Ali ibn Hamzah ibn Abd Allah ibn Behman ibn Firuz (d. 189/804), according to Ibn al‑Jazari, had acquired the leadership of the qurra' of Kufah after Hamzah. He had heard qira'ah from al‑'Imam al‑Sadiq (A), al‑Azrami, and Sulayman ibn Arqam, and learnt it from Hamzah, Muhammad ibn Abd al‑Rahman and Isa ibn Umar.
Later, other names that were added to these were the following:
1. Khalaf ibn Hisham: Abu Muhammad Khalaf ibn Hisham ibn Taghlib al‑Bazzaz (150‑229/767‑843). He was from Baghdad and is said to have a very powerful memory. Having memorized the Qur'an at the age of 10, he began his study of qira'ah at 13.
2. Yaqub ibn Ishaq: Abu Muhammad Ya'qub ibn Ishaq (d. 205/ 820) belonged to Basrah. He said that he had learnt the entire qira'ah in a year and a half.
3. Qa'qa: Abu Ja'far Yazid ibn Qa'qa al‑Makhzumi of Madinah was the leading qari' of Madinah. He had learnt it from Abd Allah ibn Ayyash and Abd Allah ibn Abbas.
This was a brief account of the ten qurra ; to whom four more names were subsequently added: al‑Hasan al‑Basri, Ibn Mahid, Yahya ibn Mubarak al‑Yazdi and Muhammad ibn Ahmad al‑Shanbudhi. These came to be known as "the fourteen qurra'. "For further details about them one may refer to these books: Tabaqat al‑qura ; Tahdhib al-Tahdhib, Lisan al‑mizan, and ,Tibat al‑nashr fi al‑qira'at al‑ashr.
A group of the Prophet's Companions possessed special expertise and fame in the qira'ah of the Qur'an. Having learnt it from the Prophet (S) they endeavoured to teach it to others. Among the Tabi'un those who had learnt it from the Sahabah and are well‑known are:
Ubayd ibn Umayr, Ala' ibn Abi Riyah, Tawus, Mujahid, Ibn Abi Malkiyyah in Makkah.
Said ibn Musayyib, Urwah, Salim, Umar ibn Abd al‑Aziz, Sulayman ibn Yasar, Ata' ibn Yasar, Mu'adh ibn al‑Harith, Abd alRahmAn ibn Hurmuz, Ibn Shihab al‑Zuhri, Muslim ibn Jundab and Zayd ibn Adam in Madinah.
Alqamah, al‑'Aswad, Masruq, Ubaydah, Amr ibn Shurahbil, alHarith ibn Qays, Rabi ibn Khashim, Amr ibn Maymun, Abu Abd alAahman al‑Salami, and Zirr ibn Hubaysh in Kufah.
Abu Aliyah, Abu Raja', Abu al‑'Aswad al‑Du'ali, Nasr ibn ,&4im, and Yahya ibn Yamar in Basrah.
Al‑Mughirah ibn Abi Shihab al‑Makhzumi and Khalifah ibn Sa'd in Syria.
b. The Reliable Readings:
Now it should be seen to what extent the above‑mentioned readings are to be relied upon. Some scholars have divided the qira'atinto three kinds: mutawatir, ahad and shadhdh. According to this division, the qira'at of the seven qurra' have been considered mutawatir, the qird'at of the other three as ahad, and those of the next four as shadhdh. Some, like Jalal al‑Din al‑Balqini, have accepted this classification, while al‑Suyuti considers the tawatur of the seven qurra' as doubtful for the following reasons.