Understanding Islam
For decades Islam has evoked discussion and debate. The religion is under a microscope after the 9/11 attacks. Never before has Islam been so questioned as to the extent that is today. A few scholars have come to its rescue to clarify the principles on which Islam is based. One such scholar is Professor John L. Esposito who has done so through his writings.
Starting today, Gulf News will publish a series of eight articles by Esposito shedding light on the many areas of Islam, among them being the Holy Quran, politics, women, and terrorism, to eliminate the misunderstandings in Islam.
The attacks on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon of September 11, 2001, and subsequent acts of terrorism in Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and Morocco continue to raise questions about the relationship of Islam to violence and terrorism. At the same time, the Bush administration's conducting of its war against global terrorism has led many Muslims to question whether this is a war against Islam and the Muslim world and an attempt to redraw the map of the Middle East and the Muslim world. Many in the Muslim world and in the West warn of a clash of civilizations.
I am delighted to have this opportunity in this and in future articles to discuss these and many other questions about Islam and the relationship of the Muslim world to the West. Historically, relations between Islam and Christianity, the Muslim world and the West, have been one of co-existence as well as conflict.
In a world of globalization, weapons of mass destruction and global terrorism, we are challenged as never before to promote mutual understanding and respect, co-existence and co-operation. For as is sometimes forgotten, despite differences, Muslims, Christians and Jews embrace an absolute monotheism, are all People of the Book; Islam recognies God's revelation to Moses and Jesus, is a religion of peace, moral responsibility and accountability and, like the other children of Abraham, shares a passion for social justice.
Equally important all in the mainstream of Muslim, Christian and Jewish societies and communities today share a common enemy: global terrorism. To say all of this is not to deny the differences and grievances engendered in recent years by the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, the Gulf War of 1990-1991, sanctions and more recently the war in Iraq, the September 11, 2001, attacks, etc.
The first batch of my columns will deal with many of the questions and issues raised over the years, especially post 9/11: what is Islam's teachings regarding violence and terrorism, suicide bombings and martyrdom, Jews and Christians, jihad, gender relations, democracy, pluralism.
Today I will deal specifically with the issue of jihad, violence and terrorism.
What is jihad?
Jihad (exertion or struggle) is sometimes referred to as the Sixth Pillar of Islam. The importance of jihad is rooted in the Holy Quran's command to struggle (the literal meaning of the word jihad) in the path of God and in the example of the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his early Companions.
The history of the Muslim community from the Prophet (PBUH) to the present day can be read within the framework of what the Holy Quran teaches about jihad. These Holy Quranic teachings have been of essential significance to Muslim self-understanding, piety, mobilisation, expansion, and defence. Jihad as struggle pertains to the difficulty and complexity of living a good life: struggling against the evil in oneself to be virtuous and moral, making a serious effort to do good deeds and helping to reform society.
Depending on the circumstances in which one lives, it also can mean fighting injustice and oppression, spreading and defending Islam, and creating a just society through preaching, teaching, and, if necessary, armed struggle or holy war.
The two broad meanings of jihad, non-violent and violent, are contrasted in a well-known Prophetic tradition. It is said that when Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) returned from battle he told his followers: "We return from the lesser jihad (warfare) to the greater jihad." The greater jihad is the more difficult and more important struggle against one's ego, selfishness, greed, and evil.
In its most general meaning, jihad refers to the obligation incumbent on all Muslims, individuals and the community, to follow and realise God's will: to lead a virtuous life and to extend the Islamic community through preaching, education, personal example, writing, etc. Jihad also includes the right, indeed the obligation, to defend Islam and the community from aggression. Throughout history, the call to jihad has rallied Muslims to the defence of Islam. The Afghan mujahideen fought a decade-long jihad against Soviet occupation not long ago.
Jihad is a concept with multiple meanings, used and abused throughout Islamic history. Although jihad has always been an important part of the Islamic tradition, in recent years some have maintained that it is a universal religious obligation for all true Muslims to join the jihad to promote Islamic reform or revolution.
Some look around them and see a world dominated by corrupt authoritarian regimes and a wealthy elite minority concerned solely with its own economic prosperity and awash in Western culture and values. Western governments are perceived as propping up oppressive regimes and exploiting the region's human and natural resources, robbing Muslims of their culture and their option to be governed according to their own choice and to live in a more just society.
Mainstream Islamic activists believe that the restoration of Muslim power and prosperity requires a return to Islam, a political or social revolution to create more Islamically oriented states or societies. A radicalised violent minority combine militancy with messianic visions to inspire and mobilise an army of God whose jihad they believe will liberate Muslims at home and abroad. Despite the fact that jihad is not supposed to be used for aggressive warfare, it has been, and continues to be, so used by some rulers, governments, and individuals such as Saddam Hussain in the Gulf War of 1991, the Taliban in Afghanistan, and Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida.
Does the Holy Quran condone terrorism?
This is the kind of question no one asks of his or her own religion; we save it for others! Historically, some Muslims have engaged in terrorism and used religion to justify their actions. For many who have little previous knowledge of Islam or Muslims, acts of terrorism committed by extremists, in particular 9/11, raise the question of whether there is something in Islam or the Holy Quran that fosters violence and terrorism.
Islam, like all religions, neither supports nor requires illegitimate violence. The Holy Quran does not advocate or condone terrorism. The God of the Holy Quran is consistently portrayed as a God of mercy and compassion as well as a just judge.
Every verse of the Holy Quran begins with a reference to God's mercy and compassion; throughout the Holy Quran in many contexts, Muslims are reminded to be merciful and just. Indeed, whenever a pious Muslim begins an activity such as a meal, writing a letter, or driving a car, he or she says: "Al-Rahman Al-Rahim" (In the name of God the Merciful and Compassionate). However, Islam does permit, indeed at times requires, Muslims to defend themselves and their families, religion, and community from aggression.
Like all scriptures, Islamic sacred texts must be read within the social and political contexts in which they were revealed. It is not surprising that the Holy Quran, like the Hebrew scriptures or the Old Testament, has verses that address fighting and the conduct of war.
The world in which the Islamic community emerged was a rough neighbourhood. Arabia and the city of Mecca, in which Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) lived and received God's revelation, were beset by tribal raids and cycles of vengeance and vendetta. The broader Near East, in which Arabia was located, was itself divided between two warring superpowers, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) and the Sasanian (Persian) empires.
The earliest Holy Quranic verses, dealing with the right to engage in a "defensive" jihad, or struggle, were revealed shortly after the hijra (emigration) of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his followers to Medina in flight from their persecution in Mecca.
At a time when they were forced to fight for their lives, Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) is told: "Leave is given to those who fight because they were wronged surely God is able to help them who were expelled from their homes wrongfully for saying, 'Our Lord is God'"(22:3940).
The defensive nature of jihad is clearly emphasized in 2:190: "And fight in the way of God with those who fight you, but aggress not: God loves not the aggressors." At critical points throughout the years, Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) received revelations from God that provided guidelines for the jihad.
As the Muslim community grew, questions quickly emerged as to what was proper behaviour during times of war. The Holy Quran provided detailed guidelines and regulations regarding the conduct of war: who is to fight and who is exempted (48:17, 9:91), when hostilities must cease (2:192), and how prisoners should be treated (47:4). Most important, verses such as 2:294, emphasized that warfare and the response to violence and aggression must be proportional: "Whoever transgresses against you, respond in kind."
However, Holy Quranic verses also underscore that peace, not violence and warfare, is the norm. Permission to fight the enemy is balanced by a strong mandate for making peace: "If your enemy inclines towards peace, then you too should seek peace and put your trust in God" (8:61) and "Had Allah wished, He would have made them dominate you, and so if they leave you alone and do not fight you and offer you peace, then Allah allows you no way against them" (4:90). From the earliest times, it was forbidden in Islam to kill non-combatants as well as women and children and monks and rabbis, who were given the promise of immunity unless they took part in fighting.
But what of those verses, sometimes referred to as the "sword verses," that call for killing unbelievers, such as: "When the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever you find them, and take them and confine them and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush" (9:5)? This is one of a number of Holy Quranic verses that are cited by critics to demonstrate the inherently violent nature of Islam and its scripture. These same verses have also been selectively used (or abused) by religious extremists to develop a theology of hate and intolerance and to legitimise unconditional warfare against unbelievers.
During the period of expansion and conquest, many of the ulama (religious scholars) enjoyed royal patronage and provided a rationale for caliphs to pursue their imperial dreams and extend the boundaries of their empires. They said that the "sword verses" abrogated or overrode the earlier Holy Quranic verses that limited jihad to defensive war: In fact, however, the full intent of "When the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever you find them" is missed or distorted when quoted in isolation. For it is followed and qualified by: "But if they repent and fulfill their devotional obligations and pay the zakat (the charitable tax on Muslims), then let them go their way, for God is forgiving and kind"(9:5).
The same is true of another often quoted verse: "Fight those who believe not in God nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by God and His Apostle, nor hold the religion of truth (even if they are) of the People of the Book," which is often cited without the line that follows, "Until they pay the tax with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued" (9:29).
Throughout history, the sacred scriptures of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have been used and abused, interpreted and misinterpreted, to justify resistance and liberation struggles, extremism and terrorism, holy and unholy wars. Terrorists like Osama bin Laden and others go beyond classical Islam's criteria for a just jihad and recognise no limits but their own, employing any weapons or means.
They reject Islamic laws regarding the goals and legitimate means for a valid jihad: that violence must be proportional and that only the necessary amount of force should be used to repel the enemy, that innocent civilians should not be targeted, and that jihad must be declared by the ruler or head of state.
Today, individuals and groups, religious and lay, seize the right to declare and legitimise unholy wars of terrorism in the name of Islam.
How can Islam be used to justify terrorism, hijackings, and hostage- taking?
While the atrocities and acts of terrorism committed by violent extremists have connected Islam with terrorism, the Islamic tradition places limits on the use of violence and rejects terrorism, hijackings, and hostage taking.
As with other faiths, mainstream and normative doctrines and laws are ignored, distorted, or hijacked and misinterpreted by a radical fringe. Islamic law, drawing on the Holy Quran, sets out clear guidelines for the conduct of war and rejects acts of terrorism. Among other things, it is quite specific in calling for the protection of non-combatants as well as for proportional retaliation.
As the Muslim community grew, questions quickly emerged about who had religious and political authority, how to handle rebellion and civil war, what was proper behaviour during times of war and peace, and how to rationalise and legitimise expansion and conquest, violence and resistance. Answers were developed by referring to Holy Quranic injunctions and the practice of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his companions.
The Holy Quran provides detailed guidelines and regulations regarding war: who should fight (48:17, 9:91), when fighting should end (2:192), how to treat prisoners (47:4). It emphasises proportionality in warfare: "Whoever transgresses against you, respond in kind"(2:194).
Other verses provide a strong mandate for making peace: "If your enemy inclines toward peace then you too should seek peace and put your trust in God" (8:61) and "Had Allah wished, He would have made them dominate you and so if they leave you alone and do not fight you and offer you peace, then Allah allows you no way against them" (4:90).
Since its beginnings, the Islamic community faced rebellion and civil wars, violence and terrorism, epitomised by groups like the Kharijites and Assassins. The Kharijites were a pious but puritanical and militant extremist group that broke with the caliph Ali and later assassinated him.
The Assassins lived apart in secret communities from which they were guided by a series of Grand Masters, who ruled from the mountain fortress of Alamut in northern Persia. The Assassins' jihad against the Seljuq Dynasty terrorised princes, generals, and ulama (scholars), whom they murdered in the name of the Hidden Imam. They struck such terror in the hearts of their Muslim and Crusader enemies that their exploits in Persia and Syria earned them a name and memory in history long after they were overrun and the Mongols executed their last Grand Master in 1256.
The response of Sunni Islam and Islamic law was to marginalize extremists and develop a political theory that emphasized stability over chaos and anarchy. This, of course, did not dissuade all from the extremist path.
In more recent decades, alongside mainstream Islamic political opposition, terrorist groups have risen to challenge regimes and terrorize their populations and attack foreign interests. Often they portray themselves as the "true believers" struggling against repressive regimes and in the midst of a "pagan" society of unbelief. They attempt to impose their ideological brand of Islam and "hijack" Islamic doctrines such as jihad, claiming to be defending true Islam, to legitimize their illegitimate use of violence and acts of terrorism.
In Egypt, groups like Egypt's Islamic Jihad, and other extremist groups, assassinated President Anwar Sadat and other government officials, slaughtered tourists in Luxor, burned churches and killed Christians.
In Algeria, the Armed Islamic Group has engaged in a campaign of terror against the Algerian government. Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida undertook a global war of terror against Muslim governments and America, distorting Islam and countering Islamic law in issuing their own fatwas (legal opinions) in an attempt to legitimise their war and call for attacks against civilians (non-combatants).
Although these groups tend to receive the most media coverage because of the high-profile atrocities they commit, they represent only an extremist minority, not the majority of Muslims.
Despite the fact that Europe and America have had long associations with Muslim countries politically and economically, and that today Islam and Muslims are an integral part of the West, the second largest religion in Europe and the third largest in America, Islam and the mainstream of Muslim societies are judged not by their faith but by the acts of Muslim extremists and terrorist groups like Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida.
Ironically, when Christian or Jewish extremists commit acts of violence and terror, they are automatically and reflexively distinguished as extremists, that is, deviating from the normative and mainstream faith of Judaism and Christianity.
However, today Islam is not treated in a similar fashion. Thus, when many use the phrase "Muslim extremist", it is often not to distinguish the extremist from the mainstream for indeed many continue to question or to believe that Islam itself is extremist. Addressing and correcting this issue is critical today not only in terms of religious, political and economic relations between the Muslim world and the West but also in terms of the acceptance and civil rights of the mainstream Muslim majority in the West.
John L. Esposito is University Professor Religion and International Affairs and Founding Director of the Centre for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Walsh School for Foreign Service, Georgetown University.