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2.Ilm al‑qira'ah; dealing with words, their syllabication
and composition and the techniques of recitation.
3. Ilm al‑tafsir, dealing with the meanings of words, the
historical circumstances of the revelation of verses (asbab al‑nuzul), etc. Discussions regarding nasikh
and mansukh, and muhkam and mutashabih also
relate to ilm al‑tafsir. Researchers
in Qur'anic sciences have compiled various books and treatises in this field.
However, for reasons of space, we shall refrain from mentioning them here.
The Mode of Revelation:
The temporal aspect of the
Qur'an's revelation, too, has received attention among the topics of discussion
pertaining to Qur'anic studies. However, it is difficult to visualize any
effect of the aforesaid topic on the process of legal inference from the
Qur'an.
Some are of the opinion that the
Qur'an was revealed all at once and completely, although the Holy Prophet
recited the same in parts in different contexts. Some others believe that the
Qur'an was gradually revealed over a period of time, and its revelation, being
in the temporal order of its communication, was also gradual.
Some of the verses, like those of
the Surat al‑Qadr, apparently
confirm the first view, and some others, like verse 106 of Surat al‑'Isra; are compatible with the theory of gradual
revelation. Be that as it may, this question does not significantly affect ijtihad and the understanding of the
Qur'an, for it is an established fact that the Prophet (S) conveyed the
Qur'anic verses at different times and on various occasions and recited them
to the Muslims at Makkah and Madinah over a period of time. The time, place and
circumstances of revelation, however, do help in the process of understanding
the Qur'in. But the question as to whether or not the verses were revealed at
one time and completely or gradually and in parts does not make any difference.
Accordingly, we refrain from further discussion in this regard.
Makki and Madani Verses:
The division of the Qur'anic
vers6s into Makki and Madani is also a topic of discussion in the Qur'anic
studies. It does considerably affect the understanding of the Qur'an and the
Lawgiver's intent, and consequently the deduction of ahkam. Experts and researchers have considered twenty of the Qur'anic
surahs as Madani. Opinions differ in
respect of twelve surahs and the
remaining surahs have been reckoned
as Makki.
Some investigators have sought
for the distinctive characteristics of Makki and Madani surahs. A close study of these qualities will indicate the
historical order of the exposition of different ethical, spiritual, doctrinal
and ritual issues. Al‑Allamah al‑Suyuti has specified some special
features of Makki surahs, as follows:
1. The Makki surahs contain verses that mention sajdah (prostration).
2. The name 'Makkah' occurs in some of them.
3. The phrase O people,' is used therein to address the
Muslims in general.
4. The stories of the prophets
and of past peoples, as well as the episode of Iblis (with the exception of Surat al‑Baqarah), are narrated
therein.
5. The surahs begin with what are called al‑huruf al‑muqattaah such as etc.
The presence of these
characteristics indicates that a surah is
Makkan. There are, of course, other characteristics of Makkan surahs that have been pointed out, such
as the shortness of the surahs and
verses, powerful phrases and expressions, reference to doctrinal issues, the
recurring oaths, arguments addressed to the idolaters and so on. But these
characteristics are not generally applicable, though they may be of assistance
to the researcher in pursuit of a more definite viewpoint.
The Different Readings:
Another subject relevant to the
study of the Qur'an and legal deduction is the difference of readings. There
are three matters that need to be studied in this regard.
(a) The reasons for the emergence
of the various readings.
(b) The identification of
reliable and more common readings, both from Sunni and Imami viewpoints.
(c) The effect of the difference
of readings on the understanding of the verses and the Lawgiver's intent and,
as a result, on the deduction of ahkam.
a. The Reason Behind Variant
Readings:
At the outset when the Qur'an was
collected and compiled, the scribes and copyists wrote the text without using
any diacritical points or marks. They relied on their familiarity with the text
for correct reading. However, with the passage of time the readers of the
Qur'an faced difficulties in this respect and they came to read and understand
the verses in ways that differed slightly from one another.
The emergence of this difference
compelled some experts on the recitation of the Qur'an to take steps to specify
the correct manner of reading. Seven of such experts came to acquire fame. They
were:
1. Ibn Amir: Abu Imran
Abd Allah ibn Amir al‑Dimashqi (8‑118/6269‑736) was the
expert of qira'ah among the people of
Syria. It is commonly said of him that he had learnt it under al Mughirah ibn
Abi Shihab.
2. Ibn Kathir al‑Makki:
Abd Allah ibn Kathir ibn Abd Allah ibn Zadan ibn Firuzan ibn Hurmuz (45‑120/664‑737).
According to a tradition, he had learnt qira'ah
from Abd Allah ibn Sa'ib al‑Makhzumi. But that which is widely known
is that he learnt it from Mujahid.
3. Asim al‑Kufi:
Abu Baler Aim ibn Abi al‑Najud al‑'Asadi (d. 127 or 128/745 or
746), according to various narrations that have come down from him, had learnt qira'ah from Abu Abd al‑Rahman alSalami,
who had learnt it from 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (A).
4. Abu Amr al‑Basri:
Zabban ibn Ala' ibn Amman al‑Mazini (68r‑154/687‑770) was
from Basrah and was an Iranian according to one tradition. He had learnt qira'ah in Makkah, Madinah, Kufah and
Basrah. He was the most eminent qari of his period.
5. Hamzah al‑Kufi: Abu
Ammar Hamzah ibn Habib ibn Umarah ibn Isma'il (80‑156/699‑772)
belonged to the tribe of Tamim and was a Kufan. According to the author of al Kifayat al‑kubra wa al‑taysir, he had learnt
qira'ah from Muhammad ibn Abd al‑Rahman
and Talhah ibn Mu'arrif. According to the book al Mustanir, he had learnt it from al 'Imam al‑Sadiq (A).
According to other traditions he
had learnt it from al‑Mughirah ibn Muqsim, al‑Mansur, Layth ibn Abi
Sulaym, Sulayman ibn al‑'A'mash, and Humran ibn A'yan.
6. Nafil al‑Madani:
Nafi' ibn Abd al‑Rahman ibn Abi Nu'aym (d. 169/785), an Iranian from
Isfahan, had learnt qira'ah from the
tabi'i scholars of Madinah.
7. Al‑Kisa'i: Abu al‑Hasan
Ali ibn Hamzah ibn Abd Allah ibn Behman ibn Firuz (d. 189/804), according to
Ibn al‑Jazari, had acquired the leadership of the qurra' of Kufah
after Hamzah. He had heard qira'ah from
al‑'Imam al‑Sadiq (A), al‑Azrami, and Sulayman ibn Arqam,
and learnt it from Hamzah, Muhammad ibn Abd al‑Rahman and Isa ibn
Umar.
Later, other names that were
added to these were the following:
1. Khalaf ibn Hisham: Abu
Muhammad Khalaf ibn Hisham ibn Taghlib al‑Bazzaz (150‑229/767‑843).
He was from Baghdad and is said to have a very powerful memory. Having
memorized the Qur'an at the age of 10, he began his study of qira'ah at 13.
2. Yaqub ibn Ishaq: Abu Muhammad
Ya'qub ibn Ishaq (d. 205/ 820) belonged to Basrah. He said that he had learnt
the entire qira'ah in a year and a
half.
3. Qa'qa: Abu Ja'far Yazid ibn
Qa'qa al‑Makhzumi of Madinah was the leading qari' of Madinah. He had learnt it from Abd Allah ibn Ayyash and
Abd Allah ibn Abbas.
This was a brief account of the
ten qurra ; to whom four more
names were subsequently added: al‑Hasan al‑Basri, Ibn Mahid, Yahya
ibn Mubarak al‑Yazdi and Muhammad ibn Ahmad al‑Shanbudhi. These
came to be known as "the fourteen qurra'. "For further details about them one may refer to these
books: Tabaqat al‑qura ; Tahdhib al-Tahdhib,
Lisan al‑mizan, and ,Tibat al‑nashr fi al‑qira'at
al‑ashr.
A group of the Prophet's
Companions possessed special expertise and fame in the qira'ah of the Qur'an. Having learnt it from the Prophet (S) they
endeavoured to teach it to others. Among the Tabi'un those who had learnt it
from the Sahabah and are well‑known are:
Ubayd ibn Umayr, Ala' ibn Abi
Riyah, Tawus, Mujahid, Ibn Abi Malkiyyah in Makkah.
Said ibn Musayyib, Urwah, Salim,
Umar ibn Abd al‑Aziz, Sulayman ibn Yasar, Ata' ibn Yasar, Mu'adh ibn
al‑Harith, Abd alRahmAn ibn Hurmuz, Ibn Shihab al‑Zuhri, Muslim
ibn Jundab and Zayd ibn Adam in Madinah.
Alqamah, al‑'Aswad,
Masruq, Ubaydah, Amr ibn Shurahbil, alHarith ibn Qays, Rabi ibn Khashim,
Amr ibn Maymun, Abu Abd alAahman al‑Salami, and Zirr ibn Hubaysh in
Kufah.
Abu Aliyah, Abu Raja', Abu al‑'Aswad
al‑Du'ali, Nasr ibn ,&4im, and Yahya ibn Yamar in Basrah.
Al‑Mughirah ibn Abi Shihab
al‑Makhzumi and Khalifah ibn Sa'd in Syria.
b. The Reliable Readings:
Now it should be seen to what
extent the above‑mentioned readings are to be relied upon. Some scholars
have divided the qira'atinto
three kinds: mutawatir, ahad and shadhdh. According to this division, the
qira'at of the seven qurra'
have been considered mutawatir, the qird'at of
the other three as ahad, and
those of the next four as shadhdh. Some,
like Jalal al‑Din al‑Balqini, have accepted this classification,
while al‑Suyuti considers the tawatur of the seven qurra'
as doubtful for the following reasons.
