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life and death etc. In other words, these questions are associated with
the, world-outlook of the book, and in terms of Islamic philosophy, with
its al-hikmat al-nazariyyah (theoretical wisdom). But the second
group of questions is concerned with the perspective of future of mankind
offered by the book. They deal with the suggested basis for moulding the
human kind and human societies. This aspect may be regarded as the "message"
of the book.
This sort of understanding is, however, concerned with the subject of
the book, and is relevant in regard to all kinds of books, whether it is
the medical treatise of Ibn Sina, or if it is the Gulistan of Sa'di. It
is possible that a book may lack an outlook as well as a message, or it
may contain an outlook but not a message, or it may contain both.
Regarding the analytical study of the Qur'an we shall have to see, in
general, what sort of problems does the Qur'an deal with, and what is its
manner of presenting them. What is its manner of argument and its approach
to various problems? Does the Qur'an, being the defender, presenter and
protector of faith, and its message being a religious message, view reason
as a rival to its teachings, and clings to a defensive posture against
it, or whether it considers reason as a supporter and protector of faith
and relies upon its power? These questions and various other queries, arise
during the analytical study of the Qur'an.
3. Study of the Sources of Ideas:
At this stage, i.e. after verification of authenticity of the authorship
of a book, and after thorough study and analysis of its contents, we come
to the stage of exploring whether the contents of the book comprise of
its author's own original ideas, or, the ideas have been borrowed from
some other source. For instance, in studying Hafiz's works, after verifying
the authenticity of the verses and making their analytical study, we have
to see whether these themes, ideas and thoughts that have been incorporated
into Hafiz's poetry and poured into the moulds of his words, phrases, couplets,
language and style, are actually the creations of Hafiz, or whether only
the words and phrases and the beauty, art and craftsmanship reflected in
the verses come from Hafiz, whereas the thoughts and ideas belong to someone
else, or have been borrowed from another source. After ascertaining his
artistic originality, the intellectual originality of Hafiz's works has
also to be established.
This kind of study regarding Hafiz, or any other author, implies the
study of the source and roots of the author's ideas and thought. This sort
of study is secondary to an analytical study; that is, firstly the contents
of the author's thought should be completely understood, and afterwards
an attempt should be made to identify its roots and sources. Otherwise,
the result of one's effort will be something like the works of certain
writers of history of various sciences, who write without any thorough
knowledge of the subject, or similar to the works of those writers of philosophical
books, who undertake, for instance, a comparative study of Ibn Sina and
Aristotle, without any knowledge of either. After superficial comparison
and on discovering some literal similitudes between the works of the two
great thinkers, they immediately sit down to pass a quick judgment. Although,
for the purpose of a comparative study, very deep and profound knowledge
of the ideas and thoughts of both of the philosophers is required. A lifetime
of study is necessary for such a task; otherwise, it has no more value
than can be given to blind imitative conjectures.
For the study and understanding of the Qur'an, an analytical study must
be followed by a comparative and historical study. That is, the contents
of the Qur'an should be compared with other books that existed at that
time, specially the religious ones. For the purpose of such a comparison,
it is essential to keep in mind the conditions and relations of the Arabian
peninsula with other parts of the world, and the number of educated Arabs
living in Mecca at the time. Only then we can arrive at an estimation of
the influence of other books of those times on the contents of the Qur'an,
and if we find something common in them, discover its proportions. We can
then see whether the material that has been borrowed from other books is
used in an original manner or not. Does the Qur'an go even further to the
extent of playing a role in amending the contents of those books and setting
right the errors occurring in them?
The Three Distinguishing
Characteristics of the Qur'an
Our study of the Qur'an acquaints us with three distinguishing characteristics
of this holy book. The first distinguishing characteristic is the absolute
authenticity of its source. That is, without the slightest need of any
comparison between the oldest manuscripts, it is evident that what we recite
as the verses of the Holy Qur'an, are exactly the same words presented
before the world by Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (S). The second characteristic
feature of the Qur'an is the quality of its contents: its teachings are
genuinely original and have not been adopted or plagiarized. It is the
duty of an analytical study to prove this fact. The third characteristic
of the Qur'an is its Divine identity: its teachings have been delivered
to the Prophet from a world that transcends his thought and mind. The Prophet
(S) was only a recipient of this revelation and message. This is the result
that we obtain from the study of the sources and roots of the Qur'an.
But the study of the sources of the Qur'an, and confirmation of its
originality, depend upon the analytical study. So I resolve to open this
discussion with the analytical study of the Qur'an. We shall first see
what is the subject matter of the Qur'an, what kind of problems are discussed
in it, what type of problems have been given priority, and in what manner
those subjects are presented in it. If we are successful in our critical
analysis, and acquire a sufficient understanding of the Qur'anic teachings,
it will bring us to an acknowledgment of its principal aspect, which is
the Divine aspect of the Qur'an, the quality of its being a Divine miracle.
Conditions Necessary for the Study of the Qur'an
The understanding of the Qur'an requires certain preliminaries which are
briefly described here. The first essential condition necessary for the
study of the Qur'an, is the knowledge of the Arabic language, such as for
the understanding of Hafiz and Sa'di, it is impossible to get anywhere
without the knowledge of the Persian language. In the same way, to acquaint
oneself with the Qur'an without knowing the Arabic language is impossible.
The other essential condition is the knowledge of the history of Islam;
since, unlike the Bible and the Torah, this book was revealed gradually
during a long period of twenty-three years of the Prophet's life, a tumultuous
time in the history of Islam. It is on this account that every verse of
the Qur'an is related to certain specific historical incident called sha'n-i
nuzul The sha'n-i nuzul, by itself does not restrict the meaning of the
verses, but the knowledge of the particulars of revelation throws more
light on the subject of the verses in an effective way.
The third condition essential for the understanding of the Qur'an, is
the correct knowledge of the sayings of the Prophet (S). He was, according
to the Qur'an itself, the interpreter of the Qur'an par excellence. The
Qur'an says:
We have revealed to you the Reminder that you may make clear
to men what has been revealed to them ... (16:44)
The Qur'an also says:
It is He who has sent among the illiterate a Messenger from
among them, to recite His sings to them, and to purify them and to teach
them the Book and the Wisdom. (62:2)
According to the Qur'an, the Prophet (S) himself is the exegetist and the
interpreter of the Qur'anic text. Whatever has reached us from the Prophet,
is of great help in our understanding of the Qur'an. For the Shi'ah, who
believe in the infallible Imams (A) also, and believe that the Prophet
(S) has transmitted everything he obtained from God to his spiritual successors
(awliya'), those genuine riwayat (narrations about the Prophet (S)) that
have reached us through the Imams, possess the same degree of authenticity
as those obtained directly from the Prophet (S). Accordingly, the authentic
riwayat of the Imams are of great help to us in our understanding of the
Qur'an.
A very important point to remember during the initial stages of study,
is that we should try to understand the Qur'an with the help of the Qur'an
itself; because, the verses of the Qur'an constitute a completely united
integral whole, a coherent unified structure. If we single out any verse
from the Qur'an and try to understand it in isolation from the rest of
the Book, it would not be a correct method. However, it is possible that
we may happen to understand it, but the method is not recommended by caution,
as certain verses of the Qur'an are explanatory for certain other verses.
All great commentators of the Qur'an have affirmed this method; the infallible
Imams also had approved of this manner of interpretation of the Qur'anic
verses. The Qur'an has its own specific mode of discussing various problems.
There are instances where if a solitary verse is studied without placing
it in its proper context, it gives quite a different sense than when it
is seen under the light of the verses dealing with a similar subject.
For instance, the specific mode and style of the Qur'an may be noticed
from the distinction drawn between al-ayat al-muhkamat (the firm verses)
and al-ayat al-mutashabihat (the ambiguous verses). There is a prevalent
view regarding the muhkamat and the mutashabihat. Some people imagine that
al-ayat al-muhkamat are such verses as whose meaning is quite simple and
clear, whereas the meaning of al-ayat al-mutashabihat is cryptic, enigmatic
and puzzling. According to this notion, men are only permitted to cogitate
upon the meaning of al-ayat al-muhkamat, and al-ayat al-mutashabihat are
basically inscrutable and beyond their understanding. Here, the question
arises, what is the philosophy underlying al-ayat al-mutashabihat? Why
has the Qur'an put forward such verses that are incomprehensible? A brief
answer to this question is that neither muhkam means "simple" and "clear",
nor mutashabih means "ambiguous", "cryptic" and "enigmatic." "Ambiguous"
and "enigmatic" are adjectives applicable to sentences that do not convey
the meaning in a direct and simple manner, as are sometimes met in the
writings of various authors. For example, when Sultan Mahmud rewarded the
poetic efforts of Ferdowsi with a reward of an insignificant and humiliating
amount of money, Ferdowsi did not accept it, and instead he accused Sultan
Mahmud of the trait of parsimony in his versified lampoons. Some of them
were quite clear and obvious whereas the others were not devoid of ambiguity
and a lot of enigma. Ferdowsi is quite direct when he says:
Had the king's mother been an honourable lady,
He would have rewarded me with knee-high gold and silver.
However, when he remarks:
The palm of king Mahmud, the conqueror of lands,
Was nine times nine and three times four,
what does he intend to say? Here Ferdowsi has made use of an enigmatic
technique. Those who are interested would like to know the solution: 9
X 9=81, 3 X 4=12, and 81 plus 12 add up to 93. Ferdowsi says, the Sultan's
palm was just like 93. It means that the fist of the Sultan was so tightly
closed that only his thumb was free, and this thumb along with the index
finger (which acquires the shape of 92 and other three fingers make 93.
Through this obscure statement Ferdowsi wants to emphatically report the
miserliness of the Sultan.
We shall see whether there are actually any enigmatic and abstruse verses
in the Qur'an. Such an assumption contradicts with the text of the Qur'an
which unequivocally states that it is a clear and comprehensible book whose
verses provide guidance and shed light. The core of the problem is that
some of the issues dealt with in the Qur'an are related to metaphysical
matters and the transcendental world, which cannot be expressed in ordinary
language. In the words of Shaykh Shabistari:
The word fails to encompass meaning,
The ocean cannot be poured into a pot.
Since the language of the Qur'an is the same as used by men, inevitably,
the same diction is used for the most sublime and spiritual themes as we
human beings use for earthly subjects. But in order to prevent any misunderstanding
about certain problems, some verses have been devised in such a way that
they need to be explained with the help of other verses. There is no way
except this. For example, the Qur'an wanted to point out to a truth namely,
seeing God through the heart; that is, to witness the presence of God by
means of one's heart. This idea has been expressed in the following terms:
(Some) faces on the Day shall be bright, looking towards
their Lord. (75:22-23)
Uniqueness of the Qur'an
The Qur'an makes use of the verb "looking," and no other word more suitable
could be available for the expression of the desired sense. But to avert
the possibility of any doubt, the Qur'an explains in other place:
Vision perceives Him not, and He perceives all vision. (6:104)
The second verse makes the reader distinguish between two different meanings
conveyed by the same word. In order to avoid any possibility of ambiguity
in its exalted themes, the Qur'an asks us to check the mutashabihat against
the mahkamat:
He sent down upon thee the Book, wherein are verses firm
(ayat mahkamat) that are the essence of the Book. (3:6)
Thereby, the Qur'an means that there are certain verses whose firmness
cannot be denied and other meanings cannot be derived from them, except
their real ones. Such verses are the 'mother' of the Book (umm al-kitab).
In the same way as a mother is the refuge to her child, or a cosmopolitan
city (umm al-qura) is the center of small cities, al-ayat al-muhkamat are
also regarded as the axes of the mutashabihat. Al-ayat al-mutashabihat
are, of course, to be cogitated upon and understood, but they are to be
pondered upon with the help of al-ayat al-muhkamat. Any inference drawn
without the help of the mother-verses would not be correct and reliable.
Is the Qur'an Understandable?
During the analysis and study of the Qur'an, the first question that arises
is whether the Qur'an can be studied and understood. Has this book been
introduced for the purpose of studying and understanding it, or whether
it is just for reading and reciting and obtaining reward and blessing?
The reader, possibly, may wonder at raising of such a question. To him
it may appear beyond doubt that the Qur'an is meant for the purpose of
knowing and understanding it. Nevertheless, in view of various undesirable
currents, which due to numerous reasons came into existence in the Muslim
world regarding the question of understanding of the Qur'an, and which
had an important role in bringing about the decline of Muslims, we shall
discuss this matter in brief. Regrettably, the roots of those degenerate
and dangerous notions still persist in our societies. So I consider it
necessary to elaborate on this topic.
Among the Shi'ah scholars of three or four centuries ago, there appeared
a group which believed that the Qur'an is not a hujjah ("proof", meaning
a legal source usable for vindication). Among the four sources of fiqh
that have been regarded as the criteria and standard for the understanding
of the Islamic problems by Muslim scholars, i.e. the Qur'an, the sunnah
(tradition), 'aql (reason) and ijma' (consensus of opinion),
they did not recognize three of them. Regarding ijma', they said
that it belongs to the Sunni tradition and they could not follow it. Concerning
reason, they maintained that reason can also err, and reliance on reason
is not legitimate. About the Qur'an they respectfully asserted that the
Qur'an is greater in station than being subject to study and comprehension
by us humble human creatures. It is only the privilege of the Prophet and
the Imams to ponder over the verses of the Holy Qur'an. We ordinary human
beings have only the right to read and recite them. This group was that
of the Akhbariyun or Akhbaris.
The Akhbaris regarded hadith and chronicles as the only permissible
sources of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). One may be astounded to
learn that in some of the Qur'anic exegeses written by these people, they
mentioned only those verses about which the tradition existed, and refrained
from mentioning other verses as if they are not a part of the Qur'an.
Such a kind of practice was an injustice to the Qur'an. This shows that
a society that could neglect and alienate their own heavenly book and that
too of the standard and stature of the Qur'an, is not at all up to the
Qur'anic standards. Besides the Akhbaris there were other groups who also
regarded the Qur'an as inaccessible to the ordinary human intellect. Among
them the Ash'arites can be named, who believed that the knowledge of the
Qur'an does not necessarily mean that its verses should be pondered over,
but the real meanings are the same as that the words literally communicate.
According to them, whatever we understand from the outward meaning, we
have to be satisfied with it. We should not be concerned with the secret
and inner meanings. It was quite natural that this sort of thinking regarding
the Qur'an, very rapidly, gave rise to serious deviations and grave misunderstandings.
Since they were forced on the one hand to the task of interpretation of
the meaning of the Qur'anic verses, and, on the other hand, banished reason
also from the realm of religious learning, as a result, they were forced
to adopt merely vulgar and superficial interpretations of the Qur'anic
verses. On account of their faulty way of thinking, they deviated from
the regular course of correct thinking, and thus gave way to distorted
and faulty religious vision. As the result of this type of religious thinking,
heretical beliefs like the personification of God the Almighty, and numerous
other distorted ideas like the possibility of visual perception of God,
His possession of physical characteristics etc., came into existence.
Opposing the group which abandoned the Qur'an, another group came into
existence which used the Qur'an as the means to fulfill their selfish aims.
They gave the Qur'anic verses such interpretations as were favourable to
their selfish interests, and wrongfully attributed certain ideas to the
Qur'anic text that were not at all in agreement with the spirit of the
Qur'an. In answer to every objection that was made against them, they said
that none except themselves could understand the esoteric and secret meaning
