Introduction

For sometime now, we have been
looking at giving the up and coming generation the attention that they
deserve. Our aim is to make available to them the sort of things and
literature that they identify with and like in different languages,
amongst which is English. It is an undeniable fact that English has become
the primary language of communication between our second generations
living here in the West.

Accordingly, the Alul Bayt (a.s.)
Foundation for Reviving the Heritage, London, U.K. has recognised the need
for setting up a publishing house whose duty it is to translate the gems
of our religious and cultural heritage to the main living languages. After
discussing the idea with Hujjatul Islam as-Sayyid Jawad ash-Shahristani,
the establishment of Dar Al-Hadi in London, U.K. has become a reality.

It is a known fact that many
members of our younger generation aspire to become acquainted with and/or
study the different disciplines taught in the conventional centres of
religious learning and scholarship. And yet, it has been difficult for
them to materialise this aim because of the complexity of the subject
matter.

However, we have been lucky enough
to come across a series of books intended to untangle these often highly
complex fields and make them readily discernable by the layman. The
author, Martyr Murtadha Mutahhari, who is among the luminaries of our
school of thought, has been known for his original thought and vast
contribution to the Islamic library.

This series has been chosen to
inaugurate a project that we hope will grow to satisfy a pressing need for
familiarisation with such complex material, which our younger generation
have heard of but yet to understand its content and objectives.

Introducing these generations to
Islamic sciences in this style, which aims to unravel the vague and make
meaningful the ambiguous, is our main goal.

In the end, we pray to the Almighty
to make this effort of ours beneficial to those who aspire to gain this
type of knowledge, and bestow success on us to produce these booklets. Our
aim and hopes are to gain happiness in this world and the hereafter. And
Allah is the best friend and helper.

Fadhil Bahrululum

Dar
Al-Hadi Publications

London, U.K.

Thul Hijja, 1423 H. (February
2003)

Foreword

It is not strange to raise the
question of how can one make simpler a complex subject such as the science
of kalaam or (scholastic theology)? This is what we have set out to do. In
this booklet we have attempted to make the subject accessible as well as
seeking to be as concise as possible.

This booklet is not only introduces
the science of kalaam to the reader but


attempts to answer the
questions on the subject as well. As such, questions like what is exactly
the science of kalaam? What is it trying to achieve? What does it deal
with? Why is it called by this name? And how did it come into existence?
are questions that the booklet will attempt to examine.

However, the final say is that of
the reader.

Fadhil Bahrul
Uloom

Lesson
one

Scholastic
Theology

The science of scholastic, or
speculative, theology (kalaam) is an Islamic science. It is
concerned with discussing Islamic beliefs, or what should be upheld of
such beliefs from an Islamic perspective. Thus, kalaam seeks
to explain the matters relating to these beliefs, advancing the evidence
in support thereof and defending the same.

Muslim scholars divide the body of
Islamic teachings into three categories:

1.
Beliefs: This category deals with the questions and knowledge
that one has to be familiar with and subsequently believe in, such as
monotheism, the Attributes of the Creator, universal and exclusive
prophethood, etc. However, Islamic schools of thought differed as to
what constitutes the fundamentals of religion and thereby have to be
espoused as such.

2.
Ethics: This category deals with the issues and
teachings that discuss the "status of man", i.e. those questions relating
to moral qualities and spiritual characteristics, such as fairness, piety,
courage, integrity, wisdom, rectitude, truthfulness, trustworthiness,
etc.

3.
Laws: This category takes care of matters relating to
the performance and mechanics of acts of worship, such as prayer, fast,
hajj (pilgrimage), jihad, enjoining good and forbidding evil, sale
and hire, marriage, divorce, inheritance, etc. This category is
known by another title, namely, jurisprudence.

According to such a division,
Islamic teachings have become the main thrust of Islam, to the exclusion
of Islamic sciences that discuss the preliminaries, such as humanities,
logic, and to a certain extent philosophy.

Also, according to this dissection,
there has been a focus on the relationship between Islamic teachings and
man. That is, matters relating to mans intellect have been given
the name "beliefs", whereas the title "ethics" has become synonymous with
questions concerning mans morals and spiritual welfare. As for the
issues relating to how man goes about conducting his devotions, they have
been given the name "jurisprudence".

As shall, God willing, be
explained, although jurisprudence is considered one science, from a
juridical perspective, yet it consists of a number of sub
sciences.

However, kalaam (speculative
or scholastic theology) is the science that is concerned with Islamic
beliefs or doctrines. It used to be called "fundamentals of
religion" or "unity and attributes".

The origins of
kalaam

It is not possible to determine
with absolute certainty when the science of scholastic theology
started. Yet, the middle of the second Hijri (Islamic lunar
calendar) century witnessed the beginning of the controversy between
Muslims over issues of a kalaam nature. Thus, questions of
freewill, predestination, and justice, were debated. Perhaps, the
first official seminary was that of al-Hassan al-Basri (d. 110
H.).

Two towering figures, who lived in
the middle of the second century, come to mind, especially when one talks
about vehement defence of mans freewill. They are Mabad al-Juhni
[d. 80/669] and Gheelan ad-Dimashqi [of Damascus, d.
150/767]. On the other side of the ideological divide, there
were the proponents of the doctrine of predestination. The latter
were known as "jabriites", as opposed to the former,
"qadriites",

The differences between these two
schools of thought had crept into other issues relating to divinity,
natural and social sciences, man and resurrection. The qadriites
were later known by the name, "mutazilites" [lit. the separatists,
founded by Wasil bin Ata (130/748), the student of al-Hassan al-Basri
after he had turned his back to his teacher] and the jabriites
[from the Arabic root jabr (necessity, compulsion)],
"ashariites", [i.e. named after the founder of the School, Abul
Hassan Ali bin Ismail al-Ashari (d. 324/935)].

The orientalists and their
disciples are adamant that the beginning of deductive work in the world of
Islam started with that sort of debate.

Nevertheless, the truth is that
deductive research in Islamic fundamentals emanated from the Holy
Quran. The prophetic traditions and the sermons of Imam Ali (a.s.)
used to provide the commentary on those Quranic passages. It has to
be noted, though, that that scholarship varied in style and substance,
pursuant to the calibre of Muslim speculative theologians
(mutakalimeen).

Research or
following?

The Holy Quran has secured the
pillars of belief according to reasoning. It has always aimed to
make people reach conviction by way of intellection or rational
judgement. The Holy Book does not consider worship in matters of
belief sufficient. Therefore, fundamentals of religion have to be
examined through logic.

Questions such as the existence of
God and His unity should be resolved by way of rational judgement, so as
the prophethood of Mohammad (s.a.w.). This is how the science of the
fundamentals of religion emerged during the first century of the Islamic
era.

The embracing of Islam by
non-Arabs, the existence of different ideologies and principles, and the
co-existence of Muslims with the followers of other religions, such as
Jews, Christians, Magians, and Sabians, had precipitated debate between
Muslims. Those developments and the interaction between all those
peoples were instrumental in the appearance of groups, such as atheists,
thanks to the general climate of freedom, especially at the time of the
Abbasid caliphate. The latter did not mind the proliferation
of such trends, provided that holding such views did not constitute any
divergence from the ruling establishments general guidelines.
Philosophy, which called for freethinking and the casting of doubt and
false arguments, also came to the fore. All those developments
called for scrutiny in the fundamental structures of Islam, with a view of
consolidating them, hence the emergence of great speculative theologians
(mutakalimeen) in the second, third and fourth centuries of the
Islamic era.

The early issues

Perhaps, among the early issues,
which became the bone of contention between Muslims, was the question of
predestination and freewill. This was quite natural, not least
because it has a bearing on mans destiny, hence, the importance attached
to it by any sensible person.

There might not be a single
intellectually mature society whose members do not engage in debate on
these matters. Moreover, since the Holy Quran discussed these
issues in many verses, it has become the driving force behind the dialogue
on such questions between people.

Therefore, we should not go far in
order to find a justification for the appearance of this issue in the
world of Islam. As for the orientalists, they always seek to refute
the originality of Islamic sciences and thought, in any way possible,
above all, by tracing such knowledge and scholarship to domains outside
the realm of Islam, especially, Christianity. That is why, they try
to attribute the science of kalaam (speculative theology) to some
other ideology, i.e. not Islamic. After all, this is what they tried
to do with even purely Arabic sciences, such as grammar, metrics,
rhetoric, figures of speech, and Islamic gnosis, or mysticism
(Irfan).

The research in predestination and
freewill also deals with the question of decree and destiny (qadha
and qadr). Insofar as its relationship with the human beings
is concerned, it is called predestination and freewill (jabr and
ikhtiyar). And as far as its link with God is
concerned, it is called decree and destiny. The research has been
extended to cover the issue of [Divine] Justice (adl) for
the obvious correlation between predestination and injustice, on the one
hand, and freewill and justice, on the other.

Justice, however, led to the study
of the "inbuilt good and repugnance" (husn and qubh) of the
human actions; this in turn led to the study of reason (aql) and
intellectual independence.

As a result of discussing all these
topics, yet another subject came to the fore, viz. wisdom (hikma),
i.e. the wise intents and purposes of the Divine. The research had
gradually developed to cover other topics, such as the unity of actions
(Tawheed afaali) and the unity of attributes
(Tawheed sifati). This will be discussed later
on.

These scholastic theology issues
and research had branched out into a plethora of subjects that have a
philosophical dimension, such as the studies in the essence and
manifestations of things and the composition of the body from inseparable
parts. Scholastic theologians have considered carrying out those
studies as necessary, i.e. preparing the ground for the discussions of the
issues dealing with the fundamentals of religion, especially creation and
resurrection (mabda and maad).

Thus, a number of issues, which
used to be the exclusive domain of philosophy, had become part and parcel
of the science of scholastic theology, hence the spanning of topics
between philosophy and kalaam (speculative theology).

Reading speculative theology books,
especially those written in the seventh century of the Islamic era onward,
you will discover that most kalaam issues were the ones discussed
by philosophers, Muslims in particular.

Philosophy and kalaam had
great impact on each other. One such influence was that
kalaam had introduced new subjects into philosophy. For its
part, philosophy had widened the horizons of kalaam, in that
discussing philosophical questions within a speculative theology setting
had become necessary. Hopefully, we shall be able to expand on this
subject by giving examples later on.

Rational and traditional
debate

Despite the fact that the science
of kalaam is a deductive and analogous one, in the premises and
principles it espouses to reaching logical conclusions, it consists of two
parts, i.e. rational (aqli) and traditional
(naqli).

Reason comprises the
questions that are the exclusive preserve of reason, or intellect.
Nevertheless, if tradition is resorted to in the process, it can be
considered as an extra piece of evidence on the rational judgement.
Issues of debate of this sort include monotheism, prophethood, and some
topics relating to resurrection, where you cannot rely exclusively on
tradition, i.e. the Holy Quran and Prophetic tradition
(sunnah). You have to count on reason.

Tradition is concerned with
issues pertaining to the fundamentals of religion that one must believe
and have faith in. However, since it is a branch of prophethood, and
not above it, it is sufficient to prove the issues by way of divine
revelation or authentic prophetic hadith (tradition), such as those
questions relating to imamate; according to Shiite doctrine, imamate is
among the fundamentals of religion. The same goes for the majority
of the topics that are relevant to the question of
resurrection.

Lesson
two

Scholastic theology,
a definition

It suffices to say that scholastic
theology is a science that is concerned with studying the fundamentals of
Islamic faith. In other words, it aims to clearly segregate the
matters that relate to the fundamentals of religion, proving their
veracity with demonstrative proofs and responding to scepticism and
baseless arguments levelled against them.

In books that deal with logical and
philosophical issues, there is a reference to the fact that for each and
every science there is a special subject and that what sets any science
apart from the other and makes it different is the uniqueness of the
subject it discusses.

Of course, this is true. The
sciences whose topics have realistic unity fit this description.
However, there can be other sciences, whose topics are numerous, yet
subjective, provided that there is a common goal to be served, which is
the reason for such unity and subjectivity (Iitibar)

Scholastic theology is of the
second type, in that the unity of its issues is not intrinsic and
qualitative but a subjective one. Thus, it is not essential to look
for one subject for the science of kalaam (scholastic
theology).

As for the sciences, whose subject
matter can demonstrate a fundamental unity, there will not be a
possibility of interlocking of their ingredients, i.e. interdependent
co-existence. On the other hand, for sciences whose unities are
subjective, there can be no harm if their issues intersect another science
the unity of whose subject matter is central. This is the reason for
the science of kalaam having something in common with philosophy,
psychology or sociology.

Some scholars tried to come up with
a subject and a definition for the science of kalaam, like those
for philosophy. They advanced a number of theories in this
regard. This is wrong. Having a unity of subject concerns the
sciences that can demonstrate a natural unity of issues. Conversely,
any science that lacks this intrinsic unity, in other words, it is
subjective, there cannot be a single subject for it.

The name

There had been a debate concerning
the name given to this science, i.e. why is it called kalaam?
When was it given this name? Some attributed this name to the
stature it gives the one who is familiar with it, in that he grows in
stature the more he is involved in debate, or speech (kalaam) and
in reaching rational conclusions. Others say that the name was
derived from the introductory phrase "Debating, or speaking of, this, or
that issue.." scholastic theologians (mutakalimeen) used to start
their writings or deliberations with. A third party said that it was
named the science of kalaam because it involves "debating, talking
about, or discussing", the issues the traditionists, or scholars of
tradition, (ahlul hadith) prefer to keep "quiet" about. A
fourth group are of the opinion that the name can be traced back to the
discussion in the context of this science about "Gods speech -
kalaam", which led to untold conflict and killings; that is why
that period was branded "the age of tribulation", in that people of that
time overindulged in argument and polemics about religious fundamentals
and on whether Gods speech was eternal or created.

Schools of scholastic
theology

As there was disagreement between
Muslims on juridical issues and the branches of religion, ending in the
setting up of different schools of thought, such as Jafariite, Zaidite,
Hanafite, Shafiite, and Hanbaliite, there was disagreement between them
over doctrinal matters. Each group had adopted special
principles. The most important among kalaam (scholastic
theology) schools of thought are Shiite, Muatazilite, Asharite, and
Murjiite.

At this juncture, a question,
tinged with regret, may be posed about the disunity of Muslims over
juridical and scholastic theology issues. Their differences in
kalaam have given rise to their disunity in Islamic thought.
Their differences over juridical matters have deprived them of the ability
to show a united front in action.

Although posing the question and
expressing regret are legitimate, yet the attention must be drawn to these
two points:

1. The differences between
Muslims over these issues are not so acute that they may shake the
foundations of their doctrinal unity and joint programmes. The
things they have in common are so many that they render the issues they
disagree over insignificant.

2. Ideological and theoretical
differences in a society that still demonstrate common ideological
fundamentals are inevitable. So long as the differences stem from
the same premises and principles and are a result of the different
approaches to deduction, without compromising the main objects and aims,
such differences are beneficial, in that they enhance research and
scholarship. However, should these differences turn into entrenched
positions, bigotry, and irrational inclinations, and the individual effort
becomes obsessed with degrading others, without a real attempt to reform
the approach, it would lead to disastrous results. The Shia (Shiite)
school of thought makes it obligatory on the mukallaf [compos
mentis: The person obligated to observe the precepts of religion] to
follow a living jurist (mujtahid). For their part, the jurists must
exert themselves, through scholarship, to arrive at independent
judgements, being vigilant as not to fall under the sway of the legal
opinions of bygone generations of jurists and great personas. This
ijtihad [lit. exertion: the process of arriving at judgements on points of
religious law, using reason and the principles of jurisprudence "usul
al-fiqh"] and independent thinking would inevitably cause difference
in opinion. However, this particular issue is responsible for giving
the Shia jurisprudence the extra edge, survival, and continuity. In
its general outlines, difference is not a bad thing. What is
condemnable is that difference resulting from ill intentions and evil
ulterior motives of those who seek to sow discord among
Muslims. Questions such as exploring the history of Islamic thought
and the differences that came to the fore as a result of ill intentions
and prejudice, the differences of opinion that emanated from rational
thinking, and whether or not we should consider all issues of
kalaam as fundamental and juridical issues as peripheral are
outside the scope of these lessons. Before starting to discuss the
schools of kalaam, we have to allude to the fact that a group of
Muslim scholars were diametrically opposed to embarking on kalaam
or rational study in the questions of fundamentals of religion. They
branded this type of scholarship an impermissible deed and a heresy, or
innovation (bidaa). This group is known as "ahlul
hadith", or the proponents (scholars) of hadith
(tradition). On top of the list of outstanding scholars of this
group was Ahmed bin Hanbal [d.245/833], the founder of the Hambalite Sunni
juridical school of thought. The Hanbalites are archenemies of any
sort of kalaam, be it Mutazilite or Asharite, let alone
Shiite. They are also known for their contraposition on philosophy
and logic. The Hanbalite, Ibn Taymiyyah [d.728/1327], the
well-known jurist passed a fatwa (edict) forbidding the involvement
in scholastic theology (kalaam) and logic (mantiq).
Jalaluddin as-Suyuti, another member of ahlul hadith wrote a
book entitled, "Sawn al-Mantiq wal kalaam an al-Mantiq
wal kalaam", i.e. the "preservation of logic and speech from the
encroachments of the sciences of logic and scholastic theology".
Malik bin Anas [d.179/795], the founder of the Malikite School of Thought,
did not license any research into doctrinal issues. As we have
already mentioned, the most important schools of scholastic theology are
the Shiite, Muatazilite, Asharite, and Murjiite. Some scholars
considered the Kahrijite, and the Ismaelite among the schools of Islamic
scholastic theology. However, we do not consider them as such.
The Kahrijites have espoused a special brand of beliefs in the
fundamentals of religion. Maybe, they were the first ones to do
so. They have talked about some beliefs in the context of imamate,
deeming those who reject it as fasiq (godless), whom they have
branded unbeliever. Yet, (a) they did not establish an ideological
school capable of deducing legal opinion; in other words, they did not set
up an ideological system in the world of Islam; and (b) in our opinion, as
Shia Muslims, their deviant ideological opinions have reached a proportion
that they are considered outside the pale of Islam. However, this
has made things palatable, in that the Khrijites have almost died out,
except for a tolerant faction of them, i.e. the Abadhiites. The
survival of the group is attributed to the broad-mindedness of its
members. As for the Batinites (secretive), i.e. the
Ismaelites, they have introduced so many unsavoury innovations into
Islamic thought that it can be said that they left Islam in a state of
topsy-turvy. For this reason, Muslims are not prepared to consider
them as one of them any more. Some forty years ago, the Group for
Rapprochement between Islamic Schools of Thought was established in Cairo,
Egypt. The founding fathers were Twelver and Zaidite Shia,
Hanafiites, Shafiites, Malikites, and Hanbalites. The Ismaelites
tried very hard to be represented, but all Muslims gave them the cold
shoulder. However, despite their apparent deviation from the right
path, the Ismaelites, unlike the Kharijites who did not have a distinct
school of thought, have a school of thought, featuring scholastic theology
and philosophy. Over the ages, famous intellectuals had emerged from
their ranks, leaving behind an ideological heritage. Of late, the
orientalists have shown keen interest in their opinions and
books. Among the towering figures of the Ismaelites is Nassir Khisro
al-Alawi, the Farsi famous poet (d. 841 H.). His known books are,
Jamiul Hukmain (the Compendium of the Two Rules), Wajhuddin (the Face of
Religion), and Khawan (sic) Ikhwan (the Brothers). Abu Hatim ar-Razi
(d. 332 H.), the author of Aalamun Nubbuwwah (The Beacons of
Prophethood), is another great Ismaelite figure. Another one is Abu
Yaqoub as-Sajistani (d. circa second half of the fourth Hijri
century), the author of Kashful Mahjoub (Unveiling the Concealed); the
Farsi translation of this book was printed some ten years ago. Also,
among other famous personalities of the Ismaelites is Hamiduddin
al-Kirmani, the student of Abu Yaqoub as-Sajistani. He was a
prolific writer on the tenets of the Ismaelites. Abu Hanifa
an-Numan bin Tahbit, known as Judge Numan and widely known as well by
Abu Hanifa ash-Shii, i.e. the Ismaeli Shiite, [to differentiate him
from the founder of the Sunni School of Thought, the Hanifiite]. He
undertook credible and good research in jurisprudence and
hadith. His book, Daaimul Islam (the Pillars of Islam) is
in circulation.

Lesson
three

The
Mutazilites (1)

We embark on this study into the
Muatazilites for a reason, which we will discuss later.

This group came into being towards
the end of the first century of the Islamic era, or at the turn of the
second century. Naturally, during this period, kalaam, or
scholastic theology, had already developed into a fully-fledged
science.

At the outset, we list down the
Muatazilites distinctive systems of belief. We will then make
reference to their famous personalities, stating some outstanding dates in
their calendar, and ending with the process of change their doctrines had
gone through before they took their final shape.

The issues the Mutazilites had
discussed were diverse, in that they were not only interested in purely
religious beliefs, which should be upheld from their perspective.
Any thing that has a bearing on the religious, they did not hesitate to
embark on discussing. Thus, issues of philosophical, social,
humanitarian, and environmental dimensions were discussed. However,
according to them, these issues have a relationship with issues of faith
and conviction. They believe that discussing the latter was not
going to come true unless the former subjects were discussed.